Syncretic Judeo-Christian Theophanic

Overtones in Sharafuddin Maneri’s

Mystical Literature

Victor Lobo and  Rajendra Chenni

The word ‘syncretism’ is derived from modern Latin ‘syncretismus,’ a transliteration of Greek ‘synkretismos,’ meaning “Cretan federation” [syn + Krēt-, Krēs Cretan]. The first known use of the word occurs in Plutarch’s (1^st century AD) essay on “Fraternal Love” in his Moralia (490ab) - probably based on sugkretos, Ionian form of sugkratos, meaning “mixed together” - to indicate a “federation of Cretan cities” for mutual defense. He cites the example of the Cretans, who compromised and reconciled their differences and came together in alliance when faced with external dangers. And that is their so-called ‘Syncretism.’ Syn·cre·tist is a noun or adjective, and syn·cre·tis·tic is an adjective.

“Syncretism” as I see it, is the combination of different (often contradictory) forms of belief or practice. It may involve the merger and analogizing of several originally discrete traditions, especially in theology and mythology of religion, thus asserting an underlying unity and allowing for an exclusive approach to other faiths. In brief, it is the fusion of two or more originally different inflectional forms which gives rise to the amalgam of a third one. Syncretism occurs commonly in expressions of arts and culture (eclecticism), politics (syncretic politics) as well as in literature (syncretic literature).

‘Theophany’ is derived from the Medieval Latin theophania, and/or from Ancient Greek theophaneia - a combination of two Greek words theo means ‘god,’ and phainein or phan means ‘to show forth, to reveal, to make shine.’ Literally theophany refers to the appearance of god or a deity to a being. Theosophically it is the divine voice representing God’s manifestation. The adjective theophanic or theophanous is a manifestation or appearance of God or a god to human person(s). The term has been used to refer to appearances of the gods in the ancient Greek and Near Eastern religions. The Epic of Gilgamesh is probably the earliest treatise with theophanic overtones, and the Iliad is the earliest literary work with theophanies in the Greek Classical tradition, which later gets reflected in other Greek mythologies as well.

In Greek tradition, Theophania or Theophanies was an annual festival in spring at Delphi celebrating the return of Apollo from his winter quarters in Hyperborea, which culminated with a display of an image of the gods to worshippers, usually hidden in the sanctuary. Later Roman Mystery religions practised similar displays of images to the excited worshippers. There are times in history when divine or heroic epiphanies were experienced, either in dreams or as a waking vision, which often than not led to the formation of a cult, or an act of worship with a commemorative offering. Traditional Biblical analysis prompted the scripture scholars to view theophany as an unambiguous divine manifestation to the humans, where unambiguous implies God revealing Himself to the humans. Otherwise, the more general term hierophany is used.

Hierophany (from the Greek hieros means ‘sacred,’ and phainein means ‘to show’ or ‘to reveal’ or ‘to bring to light’) signifies the manifestation of the sacred, especially in a sacred place, object, or occasion. Hierophany appears frequently in the works of the religious historian Mircea Eliade as an alternative to the more restrictive term ‘theophany’ (an appearance of a god), which is used to separate the sacred from the profane - by virtue of its connection with locality, the sacred is no longer absolute, because the otherwise abstract absolute has limited itself in order to become manifest. Thus, in a paradoxical sense, hierophany is an act of divine or sacred veiling because of the inherent necessity for self-limitation. Because only some aspect of the divine or sacred can be manifested, such manifestations may be named after the aspect revealed,            e.g. theophany (of divinity), kratophany (of power), Christophany (pre-incarnate appearances of Christ) and angelophany (appearances of angels).

According to Mircea Eliade, religion is based on the distinction between the sacred (God / gods, mythical ancestors, etc.) and the profane. For traditional people, myths are the ‘breakthroughs of the sacred or the supernatural into the world’ - that is hierophany. In the hierophanic myths, the sacred assumes the form of ideal models (the actions and commandments of gods, heroes, etc.), which in turn gives the world value, direction, and purpose: ‘The manifestation of the sacred ontologically founds the world.’ As per this view, for true reality to be possible, all things need to imitate or conform to the hierophanic sacred models. To traditional humans, things acquire their reality and identity, only to the extent of their participation in a transcendental reality.

Theophany is very significant in literature, especially apocalyptic literature. It has gained greater significance in the Judeo-Christian Bible, which refers to the unambiguous manifestation of God to the humans - a sense sign revealing the divine presence. In Indo-European roots, especially in Christian literature, Theol is the manifestation of a deity to a human person in a visible form but need not be material. In the Bible, theophany is a part of the apocalyptic genre of literature having its roots in Greek mythology. The Bible contains innumerable apocalyptic narratives or poetic allusions of divine revelation to humans, such as, God speaking to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden (Genesis 3:9-19); the divine manifestation to Moses amidst the unconsumed burning bush (Exodus 3:1-2) - these tend to follow a literary pattern with Canaanite[1] roots - God appears, frequently as divine warrior or king, surrounded by fire or in splendor (Deuteronomy 33:2), sometimes riding like Baal[2] upon the wind and clouds (Psalms 18:10; 68:33; 104:3), and the recipient is given a revelation or call. Elijah’s encounter with God in a ‘still small voice’ rather than in earthquake, wind and fire (1 Kings 19:9-18) may represent a rejection of Canaanite imagery associating God with the forces of nature. The inter-testamental[3] usage stems from Ezekiel 1, is a central text for the Jewish apocalyptic and mystical tradition, but now the divine manifestation takes place in heaven rather than upon earth, as the culmination of the seer’s ascent to heaven (1 Enoch 14:8-25; Revelation 4:1-11). Elsewhere in the New Testament, more traditional echoes of the language of theophany are heard in the narratives of Jesus’ baptism (Mathew 3:17), transfiguration (Mathew 17:1-8), and Paul’s conversion (Acts of the Apostles 9:1-9).

And Jesus, when he was baptized, went up straightway out of the water: and, lo, the heavens were opened unto him, and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove, and lighting upon him: And lo a voice from heaven, saying, This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased. (Mathew 3:16-17)

For the first time Sahal al-Tustari (818-896 C.E.), a Persian Sufi[4] and early classical mystic, the spiritual son of Dhul-Nun al-Misri, and the teacher of Mansur al-Hallaj cum Muhammad ibn Salim, who founded the Salimiyah Muslim theological school used the concept of theophany (tajally) in Sufi literature, that too only in the context of Paradise, which later Sufis used for a terrestrial vision of God. Recent research has revealed that in early Islam God’s speech was not restricted to the Qur’an, rather He was seen as speaking in the first person through Mohammed in sayings collected outside the Qur’anic text. Even when utterances attributed to Mohammed didn’t seem to reflect God’s speech, an authority was accorded in the eighth century which equaled the Qur’an. The tradition of God speaking in the first person was a ninth-century Sufi invention to suit their own purposes. Originally Islam was seen as a harsh and cold intrusion, which was later given mildness and warmth by Sufism - a foreign borrowing.

In recent years, however, it has been shown that the Traditions used by the Sufis, and notably those of the ‘sacrosanct Tradition’ (hadith qudsi) type, which present God’s own speech, are not likely to be any later in origin than the others in the ninth-century collections. Our chances of determining that a given tradition was really originated by Muhammed are non-existent, unless new evidence is discovered. But the Sufi Traditions seem to be as early as the rest, and probably belong to what now appears as the main source: the large-scale production of Traditions in Iraq from the beginning of the eighth century. Most probably, as the new religion of Islam was gradually built up from its Jewish-Christian base - whether this base was there at the very start, or was subsequently borrowed, or was spontaneously recreated - it produced on the one hand legal Traditions out of Jewish materials in the Babylonian Jewish community in Iraq; and on the other mystical Traditions out of Christian materials in the Nestorian Church in Iraq.[5]

Accordingly Theophany, a Judeo-Christian Biblical genre syncrerically made inroads into Sufi literature. al-Ghazzali’s following piece clearly reflects the theophanic overtones:

One day the Prophet Abraham invited a person to dinner, but when he learned that he was an infidel he canceled the invitation and turned him out. Immediately the Divine Voice reprimanded him, saying, “You did not give him food for a day even because he belonged to a different religion, yet for the last several years I am feeding him in spite of his heresy. Had you fed him for one night, you would not have become poor on that account.[6]

Originally, Abraham is Biblical figure in the book of Genesis, who is syncretically incorporated into the Qur’an. The above theophanic story is purely a Sufi concoction. There are other theophanic traditions, in which God is not presented as speaking through the agency of the prophet Mohammed alone, give Sufism both its direction and boundary: ‘Poverty is my glory,’ and ‘There is no monasticism in Islam’ are some of them.

Sharafuddin Maneri (1263-1381 C.E.), a Sufi mystic from Bihar is widely known for his Maktubat or Letters (1346 C.E.) on various spiritual topics, which became a basic Sufi text in khanqas (monasteries) throughout India. His works include, Sharafuddin Maneri: The Hundred Letters (1980), Khwani-i Pur Ni’mat: A Table Laden with Good Things (1348-50), and In Quest of God: Maneri’s Second Collection of 150 Letters (1367-68). All these belong to the malfuz genre of Sufi literature, i.e. a record of occurrences during Sufi assemblies in question-answer mode. This type of Sufi literature attained an early prominence in India on account of the great reluctance of the early Chishti[7] saints to put pen to paper, thus resulting in what is currently the best and most highly esteemed malfuz produced in India, Fawa’id ul-Fu’ad. Theophany, a Judeo-Christian biblical genre syncretically came into Sufi literature had its spell on Sharafuddin’s mystical writings, is clearly spelt out in his following literary piece:

“Abu Ali Siyah said: ‘One day, according to the sacred tradition, I was shaving my pubic hair.’ I said to myself: ‘O Ali, this is the member which is the root of all lust, and has thrown you into so many calamities. Get rid of it, so that you might acquire release from its wickedness!” I heard a voice which said: ‘O Ali, you are encroaching on My domain. One member is not of greater dignity than another in My estimation. If you yourself get rid of it, I can place in every hair of your body what I have placed in only one member.”[8]

Sharafuddin says that an earnest desire with constant effort to master one’s carnal soul is a necessary precondition for divine manifestation or theophany. According to him, self-struggle is not an end in itself, but it opens the way to divine illuminations. Mystics who sought God through ascetical practices were granted divine manifestations. For, one cannot be filled with God as long as he is filled with self. Sharafuddin’s “The Perfect Formula” says that ‘to have union with God one has to pass beyond the confines of his human nature.’ For, God has to be disclosed to the inner vision, which is beyond the physical vision, and indeed, beyond his natural intellectual vision as well. Of course, this is the Christian mystical theology with Platonic overtones, which Sharafuddin has assimilated into his mystical literature, and it gets confirmed when he quotes: When Khwaja Bayazid inquired, in intimate converse with God, “My God, what is the way to thee?” a voice from heaven gave this reply: “Pass by your selfish soul and come!”[9] Further, Sharafuddin quotes Abu Bakr Furak, who, when decided to go all by himself and give himself up wholly to devotion in some mountainous region, heard a voice: “O Abu Bakr, since you have been enlightened by God Almighty about so many matters of advantage to people, why have you abandoned God’s slaves?” He returned and once again began to reside among people.[10] In The Hundred Letters the second letter written on “Repentance” Sharafuddin says:

He then heard a voice within him say, “You submitted yourself to Me and I forgave you your sins. Again you were unfaithful and spurned Me. Now I have given you time to repent. If you wish to return, I shall receive you in peace.”[11]

No doubt, being a mystical writer Sharafuddin had deep faith in the divine voice and the following anecdote confirms his belief in theophany:

Someone was in a wilderness, perishing from thirst and saying: “There are so many oceans of water, and here am I perishing with thirst!” A voice from the Unknown was heard to say: “I have thrown so many prophets and saints into a destructive wilderness and, at My own good pleasure, have destroyed them, showing My power by having some crows pick their eyes out of their sockets! If anyone wishes to raise his voice to object, then I shall place this seal of punishment on his tongue: ‘He cannot be questioned about what He does’ (Qur’an surah Al-Anbiya’ 21:23). ‘All crows belong to Me! All righteous men are Mine too! Who can interfere with Us?”[12]

All the above theophanies comprise one-way communication - from the divine to the human - God speaks and humans listen. But Sharafuddin’s following anecdotes encompass a two-way communication - a theophany of divine-human conversation:

A man asked God for a son. A hermaphrodite was born to him. He said: “O God, I asked You for a son, but You have given me a hermaphrodite.” He heard a voice: “I know how to give, but you do not know how to ask!”…Once Khwaja Junaid had a fever. He prayed: “O God, restore me to health!” A voice was heard: “Why do you impose yourself between you and Me? Do you think I do not know what should be done on your behalf? This worry is for others, not for you!”[13]

The two-way theophanic conversation is apparent in Sharafuddin’s narration of Shibli’s mystical experience - a divine-to-human revelation:

The voice of God came: “What is it that you desire? And who is your beloved?” A cry arose: “You are our Beloved!” There was a voice from heaven that said, “Undoubtedly it is you who are My loved ones and My friends!”[14]

Usually, in Judeo-Christianity and also in Sharafuddin theophany is between the two worlds - celestial and terrestrial. In other words, it is between the heavenly divine and the earthly human. However, at times theophany takes place within the circumference of the celestial world itself, i.e. between God, angels and so on, which the following creation account clearly brings out:

There was an uproar in the kingdom when the turn of the richly endowed Adam came. The angels said: “What has happened, that so many thousands of years of our praising and glorifying God have been thrown to the wind, whereas this creature of clay has been exalted and raised above us?” A voice said: “Do not look at his form of clay! Look rather at the sacred trust given to him! ‘He loves them, and they love Him’” (Quran surah Al-Ma’idah 5:54). The fire of love has been enkindled within their hearts and a voice came, saying, “Might and victory belong to God!” Thereupon all hearts were consumed by fire; everyone melted in the intensity of love. What is this? Just as He is not restricted, neither is His work![15]

Further, Sharafuddin’s following passage vividly brings out theophany in the celestial world between the spiritual entities:

When the Devil fell, Gabriel and Michael wept for some time. A voice came: “What is the matter with you that you are weeping so profusely? He himself knows what is happening.” They said: “O Lord, we cannot be saved from Your deception.” A reply came: “You should both be wise! Don’t feel safe from My deception!” Behold the One who has no need![16]

The uniqueness in the above passage is that of attributing terrestrial human qualities and emotions to the celestial spiritual entities, who are beyond human attributes. For, emotions like weeping are human attributes limited to the physical world. However, in mysticism the mystic’s imagination can reach far beyond the human sphere to the divine sphere and envisage the ‘divine drama’ with human perceptions. Following is an extra-Qur’anic literary piece by Sharafuddin having triangular theophany - God, Archangel Gabriel and the human devotee:

One auspicious evening an order reached the Archangel Gabriel, “Go down to the world tonight and have a look around!” He went and found everyone sound asleep, except for an old man who was an idol worshiper. He was sitting in front of an idol, lost in worship, with his head bowed low. With great devotion he was soliciting the idol for things he needed. Gabriel wanted the divine command to destroy this man and thus wipe his defiling presence from the face of the earth. “O Gabriel,” said a heavenly voice, “even if he does not recognize Me as his Lord, still I consider him one of my slaves!” On another auspicious evening an address came to Gabriel, “Go tonight also and see who is asleep and who is awake.” Gabriel went and saw, standing on one leg, in the niche of a mosque, and plying the Lord with a hundred petitions, the same old man, “Do you recognize him?” asked the voice. “He is the one who was lost in prayer before the idol. Today, a stranger has become a friend, and one ignorant of Me has become filled with knowledge of Me.”[17]

Speaking on the all-pervading cum all-encompassing nature of theophanic manifestation Urabe-no-Kanekuni says, “Even in a single leaf of a tree, or a tender blade of grass, the awe-inspiring Deity manifests itself.” As in Judeo-Christianity, Sharafuddin too deploys various theophanic literary genres to communicate divine manifestations cum illuminations to the humans, which, the critics perceive to be a means to impose human precepts with divine sanctions - a syncretic mystical literary phenomenon.

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[1] Canaanite (kay’nuhnit - a Semitic term) is the ancient name of a territory and its inhabitants that included parts of what is now Israel (with occupied territories) and Lebanon.

[2] Baal (bay’al) is a Canaanite god. The Semitic word ‘baal’ means owner, or husband, or lord.

[3] A period between the writing of the Old Testament and the New Testament. Traditionally, four hundred year period, spanning the ministry of Malachi (420 B.C.), the last of the Old Testament prophets, and the appearance of John the Baptist in the early 1^st century A.D.

[4] Mystical dimension in Islam.

[5]Julian Baldick, Mystical Islam: An Introduction to Sufism, I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., London, 1989, p. 27.

[6]James Fadiman & Robert Frager (ed.), Essential Sufism, Castle Books, New Jersey, 1997, p. 63.

[7] A Sufi mystical order began in Chist, a small town near Herat in Afghanistan in 930 C.E. It was the first among the four Sufi orders - Chishtiyya, Qadiriyya,Suhrawardiyya and Naqshbandiyya - established in this region.

[8] Paul Jackson SJ (trans.), The Way of the Sufi: Sharafuddin Maneri, Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli, Delhi, 1987, p. 217.

[9]Paul Jackson SJ (trans.), In Quest of God: Maneri’s Second Collection of 150 Letters, Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, Anand, 2004, p. 30.

[10]Paul Jackson SJ (trans.), Sharafuddin Maneri: The Hundred Letters, Paulist Press, New York, 1980, p. 398.

[11]Ibid., p. 17.

[12]Ibid., p. 230.

[13]Ibid., pp. 328-29.

[14]Ibid., p. 132.

[15]Ibid., p. 182.

[16]Paul Jackson SJ (trans.), In Quest of God: Maneri’s Second Collection of 150 Letters, Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, Anand, 2004, p. 23.

[17]Paul Jackson SJ (trans.), Sharafuddin Maneri: The Hundred Letters, Paulist Press, New York, 1980, p. 61.

West Bengal Madrasah Board Honours Calcutta Jesuit

Farhat Banu

Rev. Fr. Dr. Felix Raj S.J. Principal of St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous) Kolkata was awarded with the “Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad Award 2013” by The West Bengal Board of Madrasah Education on November 11, 2013- the 125^th Birth anniversary of Maulana Azad. The day is celebrated as National Education Day-an annual observance in India to commemorate the birth anniversary of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the first education minister of independent India.

An educationist and an intellectual leader committed to free and compulsory education for all children of school-going age (which has been formalized by the government recently in its Right to Education Act); the importance of the speedy progress of adult education and women’s education, Azad was committed to humanism, liberalism and secularism. While accepting the award, Fr. Felix Raj in his Jesuit simplicity, announced that the award money would be spent on educational needs of the students from the minority community.

On the occasion Father Felix Raj narrated his experiences in a Muslim village whose surroundings gave him a Muslim formation in his early childhood.  His mother took up a teaching post in Pottagavayal School a thickly populated Muslim village about 25 km from his own village Sengudi in Ramnad district, Tamil Nadu. He had an early exposure to education as virtue and vocation as well as to Islam in the village.

He recalled growing up in a Muslim milieu where they were the only non-Muslim family in the whole village of about 300 families. Their house was just in front of the mosque and he often joined the children of the village and visited the Mosque. “I studied in my ‘mother's school’ as it was known in the village and I grew up there. I developed good childhood friends among the Muslim boys; I still cherish the friendship of some.” His mother was highly respected by all and treated as part and parcel of the village community. She was invited for every function, religious or family.

Fr. Felix Raj recalled endearingly: “Pottagavayal was a school for my education into Muslim religion and doctrine. I got to understand a new religion different from the one I was born in. On the occasions of Eid festivals, we received plenty of food. I liked the coconut rice served in the Mosque as I stood with my little friends in the queue and was served with the delicious coconut rice. I can still smell the coconut milk flavor! Later in life I remember having asked my mother many times to cook coconut rice. We rarely attended Sunday Mass, only when a Priest visited the nearby Church. Whenever we visited my native village, Sengudi for holidays, the young boys and girls always teased me as a 'Muslim boy'.”

This spirit is very much an integral part of his personality. Growing up in a different cultural milieu he found a new family within the local community. As a child and later as an educationist and an administrator the exemplary association with the community has enabled him to gain tremendous respect as well as develop close friendships within the community.

An important aspect of teaching today is battling with divisive, sectarian and regional sentiments. The world in general and India in particular is faced with an arduous task of combating such tendencies. In such a context Fr. Felix Raj is assiduously committed to the attainment of excellence in higher education as well as taking the benefits of education to the poor and the marginalized in society.

Father Felix Raj’s inspiring leadership and his commitment to promote a society based on love, freedom, justice, liberty, and equality has won him respect and admiration in the larger academic community. It is this spirit that has enabled him to develop a close association with many Muslim friends whom he does not want to name, but who are very close to St. Xavier’s College and assist the College in its mission of NIHIL ULTRA.

Dear Readers:

Welcome to October 2013 issue of Salaam.

Thanks for your encouragement and support.

Pushpa Anbu SVD editor

Victor Edwin SJ managing editor

Editorial: REBUILDING A BEAUTIFUL WORLD TOGETHER

Islam and Christianity: Maulana Wahiduddin Khan

DIALOGUE A NEW WAY OF BEING HUMAN - Tom Kunnunkal SJ

MILAP initiative: shared responsibility for a harmonious India – Victor Edwin SJ

“Mysticism in East and West – The Concept of the Unity of Being: A Christian-Muslim Symposium - Heike Stamer

Transformation through Interfaith Dialogue - Herman Roborgh S.J.

Maulana Azad and Education - Irfan Engineer

Shia Doctrine and Sectarian Rivalry in the Muslim World Today - David Pinault

The parable of the loving Father - Victor Edwin SJ

Iftar Party at St. Xavier's School, Delhi - Santosh Benedict SJ

Editorial

REBUILDING A BEAUTIFUL WORLD TOGETHER

In so many ways, our world is beautiful. But in so many other ways, it is also an ugly and violent world. Our great multi-dimensional human self is being made to shrink to view everything from the economy of money and profit. Money is fast becoming the sole currency for all human transactions. So, the only question we seek an answer for: what profit will it bring to me? When mixed with power and ably supported by arms capable of great destruction, you have a powerful weapon to make many kinds of coercive and unjust decisions. Politics is entering into all sectors of life. It is a sacrilege that it has also been allowed to enter into the sacred domain of religion, lured by the short term interests it will provide to key functionaries.    

The quest in the minds of many good-willed persons across all religious traditions is to find effective ways to contribute to rebuild our planet earth and make it once again beautiful, a spiritual quest.        

                        

Faith, human and divine, has been providing the underpinning and motive power for many great human endeavours. We humans are meaning seekers and meaning makers. As a nation, we have sought God with a relentless desire for countless centuries. Human history is filled with inspiring deeds of light, produced by men and women who dared to see beyond the limiting borders of self and had set larger goals and targets by accessing their deeper connections and capabilities. Such faith has produced many miracles of life, several of which were indeed very spectacular, be they in the realm of sport and adventure, in war or peace, in science and technology or in arts and architecture or in inspired sacred writings and actions by spirit-filled persons.  

The United Nations, while searching to find a solution for the great violence in the world, brought together the spiritual and religious leaders of the world to New York in August, 2000. The reason: in a survey it found that more than 80% of the people had a faith or belief system to power their lives. In spite of the giant progress that we have made in modern times and more so, in the recent decades, there is clear evidence that many are still searching forsomething more from life than what we have so far been able to master and use. We are moving from the Information and Communication Age to the Wisdom Age, inspired by the wisdom of the Spirit. As a result, spiritual is in. We are more than just body, mind and heart. We have also a spirit. There is growing acceptance of the fact that we are all connected beyond the global internet connectivity we already have. We are divinely rooted in God and cosmically linked to our deepest human resources. It is the great tragedy of life that most of this vast resource, human and divine, is not used by us and so we live lives of scarcity.

 The three-word mantra invitation from life:

     Discover  the aadhaar and foundation for life and living, both natural and super natural.

     Connect with these immense resources, found in the many faith traditions and so connect with persons across borders and boundaries

     Live the New and abundant life that it opens before you. The current economies, based on money, arms, technology and domination and control of others, have not produced peace and wellness of life. So, discover and live the economy of communion.

The present edition of Salaam presents many articles, which open the doors to build a new world through dialogue. Is Islam for dialogue? Yes, says Maulana Wahiuddin Khan and provides several Quranic quotes to prove it.  Victor Edwin reports the MILAP initiative that brought several scholars, searching for shared responsibility to promote union of minds and hearts. Tom Kunnunkal seeks an affirmative answer from Christians to the question: Are only a very select few called to engage in dialogue or is it a Christian imperative for all?  Herman Roborgh  explores ways to be a transforming presence in a milieu when the majority belong to another religion. Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad’s liberating views  open new windows on how education can provide personal and societal transformation. David Pinault provides insights into the sectarian violence between Shia and Sunni Muslims and the political interventions that aggravate the confrontation.   

Read, get inspired and discover a new way of being a Muslim or Christian!

Islam and Christianity

Maulana Wahiduddin Khan

Islam and Christianity have a common origin that is the Semitic tradition. Both are Semitic religions. Although the advent of Christianity was about six hundred years before that of Islam, there are great similarities between the two religions. There is much common ground between Islam and Christianity.

The Quran is the authentic text of the religion of Islam. In regard to the Muslim-Christian relationship it is worth mentioning that there are frequent references to Christianity in the Quran. For example, Muhammad and Ahmad are referred to in the Quran five times, while Isa and Masih are mentioned thirty-six times, and Maryam (Mary) is referred to thirty-four times. This shows that Islam gives special regard to Christianity and desires that Muslims develop high respect for it.

The Quran praises the Christian community in these words: “We gave him the Gospel and imbued the hearts of those who followed him with compassion and mercy.” (57:27). In another verse the Quran mentions the Christian community in these words: “The nearest in affection to them are those who say, ‘We are Christians.’” (5:82).

In Chapter 61, the Quran enjoins the Muslim to follow the method of the Christians: “O believers, be God’s helpers, as Jesus, son of Mary, said to the disciples, ‘Who will be my helpers in the cause of God?’ The disciples said, ‘We shall be God’s helpers.’”(61:14)

Greater than this is that according to the Prophet’s tradition, all the Muslims believe in what is called “the second coming of Jesus Christ”. According to Muslim belief this coming is not just for the sake of coming, it is for the sake of performing a great role. It is the final role of the history of mankind. At that time, Muslims are required to follow Jesus Christ and by joining him, they must fight against dajjal, the great deceiver. This belief is common among all Muslims.

According to a saying of the Prophet of Islam, in the later period of history, two religious communities will emerge as the greatest communities in terms of number. By seeing the above references from the Quran and the Hadith, it can be said that Islam wants that Muslims and Christians should join together in the later period of history for the cause of Allah, and they must eliminate evil by joint effort. According to the Islamic teaching, this is the greatest mission of both the communities.

Interfaith Dialogue

We are living in an age of information – the age of the knowledge explosion. Today, everyone wants to know more and more about everything, including religion. The result is that today on the subject of religion, people are far better informed than ever before.

At the same time, we are living in a world of differences – of multi-religious, multi-cultural, multi-ethnic societies. To remove these differences people fight amongst themselves, not realizing that differences cannot be removed. A reformer has rightly said that Nature abhors uniformity. This means that ‘difference’ is a part of Nature and it exists in every aspect of life including religion. What we need to do is simply learn the ‘art of difference management’ rather than the art of difference elimination. Who has the power to remove all differences?

How do we manage differences? In ancient times, people used to take a confrontational course whenever differences arose. They knew only one way to settle disputes, and that was war. But democracy put an end to this way of settling matters and introduced the culture of dialogue leading to peace.

We should also understand that difference is not a curse, but rather a blessing. History shows that difference of opinion leads to dialogue, and dialogue results in intellectual development, which is a boon for everyone concerned. Difference of opinion also leads to high thinking, which is the sole key to all kinds of human progress.

In the realm of religion, today, differences are managed only through meaningful and positive ‘inter-faith dialogue’ between people of world religions. The aim of dialogue is to seek peaceful solutions to controversial matters, in spite of differences. There may be differences in religion and culture, but there is absolutely no difference or discrimination made between people in terms of respect and honour.

The principle of dialogue is that the parties should present their viewpoints supported by arguments, while remaining ever ready for give and take — a pre- requisite of a successful dialogue — rather than insist on all demands being unconditionally met.

Dialogue in Islam

Dialogue or peaceful negotiation, is the path prescribed by Islam. Islam is based on the principle of dawah, which is another name for peaceful negotiation. Violence is totally forbidden in Islam. There is only one exception to this ban and that is when it is engaged in self-defense. This can take place only at the time of external invasion, and such action is the prerogative of an established government. Non-governmental organizations have no right to wage a war in the name of justice or even in self-defense.

The Prophet of Islam started his mission in Makkah in 610 A.D. This mission was to communicate his ideology to people by talking to them, listening to their objections and trying to convince them of his viewpoint by means of arguments. One of the initial Quranic verses revealed to him was that the ideology given by God to the Prophet should be spread by him among the people (93:11) The Prophet’s ideology was based on monotheism, whereas his Arab contemporaries believed in polytheism. It was but natural, therefore, that his mission should become subject to bilateral negotiation.

He would communicate his point to people, listen to their responses and then give them further explanations. In this way his mission became a practical demonstration of what we now term dialogue. To make this dialogue fruitful, the Quran lays down certain meaningful guidelines: “Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and fair exhortation, and reason with them in a way that is best.” (16:125)

This verse shows that your conversation with others should be carried on in the best and most gracious way, hence, any bickering with other parties has to be avoided. After listening to their objections, the point should be made in such a way that appeals to their minds. That is, it should not end in mere debate, but should be result-oriented. The conversation should not appear to be between rivals, but should aim at mutual understanding.

The Quran makes this quite explicit: “Good and evil deeds are not equal. Repel evil with what is better; then you will see that one who was once your enemy has become your dearest friend.” (41:34)

This verse of the Quran tells us that no one is Mr Enemy. Everyone is potentially Mr Friend. This is so because everyone is born with the same nature. From this Quranic principle, we learn that the beginning of any dialogue should not be marked by any sign of despair about the possible outcome. The right approach is to display a hopeful attitude and at the very outset to suppress any tone which would suggest low expectations of success.

Common Word

In this regard, another verse of the Quran is as follows: “Say, ‘People of the Book! Let us come to a word common to us that we shall worship none but God.’” (3:64)

We learn from this verse, what should be the subject of discussion when a conversation is being held between two parties? That is, the beginning of a dialogue should not start with a controversy. Instead, a common ground should be sought on which the discussion should begin. The sequence of the discussion, therefore, should be from agreement to difference of opinion and then back to agreement.

In Islam, the formula for social peace, social harmony and interfaith dialogue is based on peaceful coexistence as has been given in the following verse of the Quran: “To you, your religion, and to me, mine.” (109:6)

In other words, the principle of dialogue given by Islam is, “Follow one and respect all”, or the method of ‘mutual respect’. As per the teachings of Islam, while respecting others, we have to welcome differences wholeheartedly without any reservation. It is hatred, which has to be eliminated and not difference of opinion. People may have their differences in belief, religion, culture, etc., but while following their religion, they have to have mutual respect for others and discover a common bond between them, which shows them that all are human beings.

The following is another relevant verse: “Do not revile those [beings] whom they invoke instead of God, lest they, in their hostility, revile God and out of ignorance.” (6:109)

We gather from this verse of the Quran that, when dialogue takes place between two parties on a controversial subject, it is essential that an amicable atmosphere be maintained. If both parties set about arousing animosity and people on both sides are engaged in spreading antagonistic feelings, such an unfavorable atmosphere will be created that no fruitful dialogue can take place.

It is a fact that the result of dialogue is not solely dependent upon the atmosphere of the immediate surroundings, but depends rather upon whether the external environment favors or disfavors it.

Another principle of dialogue is supported by the tradition of the Prophet of Islam concerning the via media arrived at in drawing up the Hudaybiya Peace Treaty. This treaty was signed only after long negotiations between the Prophet of Islam and the Quraysh. It is a matter of historical record that the conclusion of this treaty was possible because the Prophet unilaterally accepted the conditions laid down by the Quraysh.

The principle of dialogue derived from this Sunnah of the Prophet is that both the parties should present their viewpoints supported by arguments, while remaining ever ready for give and take — a prerequisite of a successful dialogue — rather than insist on all demands being unconditionally met.

In practical matters, Islam advocates flexibility to the ultimate possible extent.

We learn from a number of examples throughout Islamic history that Islam not only lays down principles of dialogue, but gives also practical demonstrations. In the Makkan period of his mission, the Prophet of Islam repeatedly practiced the principle of dialogue. For instance, once the Quraysh sent their leader, Utba ibn Rabiyya, as their representative to the Prophet of Islam so that an atmosphere of peace might be arrived at through negotiation on the subject of mutual differences. The traditions tell us that Utba heard the Prophet out patiently and with full attention. Then he conveyed what he had said to the Quraysh. Similarly, at the invitation of his uncle, Abu Talib, representatives of the Quraysh gathered at the Prophet’s home and held negotiations there peacefully on controversial matters.

This principle of peaceful negotiations can also be witnessed in the negotiations held at Hudaybiya between the Quraysh and Prophet of Islam that continued for about two weeks, culminating in the treaty of Hudaybiya. This event, without doubt, is a successful example of peaceful negotiation. Again, in the presence of the Prophet of Islam, tripartite talks were held between representatives of three religions – Islam, Judaism and Christianity, in the Prophet’s mosque in Madinah. This historic event, which took place in the sacred place of worship, shows the importance given to peaceful dialogue in Islam.

Such examples, which are many in number, relate to the golden age of the Prophet and his companions. That is why the practice of dialogue in terms of bilateral negotiation enjoys the position of an established principle in Islam.

In Conclusion

It becomes clear from the above discussion that the method of Islam is that of peaceful dialogue. The Quran tells us that the way of peace is the best way. (4:128). There is another verse, which tells us that the way of negotiation and arbitration should be adopted in controversial matters. (4:35)

There is a tradition of the Prophet to this effect: “Do not desire or seek confrontation with the enemy, but rather ask for peace from God.”

The objective of Islam is to bring about divine revolution, to invite people to worship God, to strive for a society in which spiritual, ethical, and human values are cherished. Islam advocates an atmosphere where peace, tolerance, love and well-wishing is the order of the day — an atmosphere where controversies are resolved without the use of violence. This is the desired world of Islam and such a world can be established only through peaceful dialogue. The truth is that Islam is based on monotheism, with regard to God; and on peaceful dialogue, with regard to methodology. This is the essence of Islamic teaching. No other way is possible in Islam.

DIALOGUE A NEW WAY OF BEING HUMAN

 Tom Kunnunkal SJ

We live in a multi-cultural and multi-religious world.

We live in a world that makes us feel good. We also live in a world that is not at ease. Many, in our world, experience a lot of tension and fear about what could happen that would cause them injury, even serious injury or death. We live in a modern world created through knowledge and technology, a world of great  abundance. Side by side, we also find many, both the rich and the poor, experiencing lack or absence of inner peace and hence a scarcity mentality. Adding more items to the many items we already have will not help us to find a solution. We need a new mindset, a new relationship, a new connection, a new way of being human. God in his wisdom has created a beautiful world. One great reason that the world is so beautiful is that it is so diverse. We see it well illustrated in Nature. We see it in every human being as well, so uniquely different from every other, with no duplicates. It does not take much imagination to realize how quickly we will get totally bored with a world and its peoples if everything and everyone looked the same and behaved the same way. That will be an insufferable hell on earth. So we thank God for diversity. We thank God for the diverse, multi-religious and multi-cultural India we have. Each community and its peoples have made so many significant contributions to create the beautiful India we have. This is also the strength of India. Therefore, inter-faith dialogue must remain a non-negotiable constituent of the new India we want to build together. We then see Dialogue as a planned effort to sustain and take forward this beautiful India. That is why we need to resist strongly any attempt to make India a mono-cultural, a mono-religious society.

What are the stumbling blocks?

Religions were meant to promote togetherness and communion and not to divide people. I find a fundamental cause for division in the three religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, which share a common Abrahamic spiritual foundation. Each makes the claim that they have the truth and the whole truth and that God has made a special revelation to them alone.  God’s saving presence in the world and the way God reveals Self to us humans is a mystery. God is beyond any borders and boundaries that we humans create. Can truth be proprietary to any one group or religious tradition? Obviously, only God can claim to be the sole and ultimate proprietor of all truth. But God shares His truth with all of us and to some of His saints and prophets, He shares more specially and deeply.

Restoring the integrity of God’s world, a world corrupted by our human actions, can only be a joint venture, by persons of all religious traditions. Why do I say that? Such a huge cosmic project cannot be successfully achieved, by any single group. Christians and Muslims, forming nearly 40 percent of the world population, have a major share of that responsibility.

Dialogue is an effective strategy to recreate God’s beautiful world. It is a strategic instrument for this re-creation and for the fashioning of an alternate human society. If we see dialogue as an opportunity to convince the other of our truth and show them their error, we will surely fail, as we have numerous records of such failures in the past.  Today’ world is an inter-connected world, with many wide open spaces in all sectors of life that are accessible to those who wish to do so. While this “open space” is expanding greatly in many sectors of life, there is a growing tendency to shrink within narrow borders, whether as a philosopher, a scientist or a believer in a particular religious tradition.

In the present state and conditions both globally and in India, the invitation is that we seek strategies to create an alternate universe, a new human community, the India without borders, as envisioned by the Constitution. 

ISA, founded 33 years ago, is a small organization but with a large objective. It works to build harmonious relationships between Muslims, Christians, Hindus and other faith traditions. Specifically it aims to provide opportunities for Christians to have an experience of Muslim life. Listening to several of our Muslim brothers and sisters talk of how their Islamic faith is guiding and directing their practical life and decisions will provide great inspiration to us, Christians.  

We are all pilgrims seeking to find God in our human hearts. The invitation is that we join hands and travel together as fellow pilgrims. Commitment to integral human liberation can become the meeting point for all religions. The invitation is to develop a culture of dialogue in our life. It will demand that we respect all that the Spirit of God brings about in our human history, including the multiplicity of religions. While engaged in dialogue, we remain rooted in our own religious identity. We have beautiful instances of many persons from different religious traditions (true of many Christians and many Muslims) who have successfully built bridges of understanding with other faith traditions. There is enough evidence that those who approached followers of other faith traditions with preparation, knowledge and respect, have often found that a fruitful dialogue is indeed possible. We accept the mystery of God who is in constant dialogue with all whom He has created and in imitation of God, we are also invited to engage in dialogue with others.