Editorial
Salaam alei kum!
Dialogue captures the imagination of many people today. We find an increased interest in dialogue among religious and laity in the Catholic Church. In May 2009, I had the privilege of guiding a group of young nuns belonging to the Congregation of the Daughters of the Cross on ‘Dialogue and Mission’. Prior to the seminar, they were provided with reading materials on Inter-religious Dialogue. The reading materials helped them to prepare well for the seminar before we met at Igatpuri.
During the Seminar we had the opportunity of visiting a Gurudwara, a masjid and the International Vipassana Center. It was an unique experience, as most of the participants had never visited a place of worship which belong to a different religious traditions. We experienced cordial relationship and friendly atmosphere at the Gurudwara and at the Vipassana Center. The experience at the masjid was quite different for various reasons. When we approached the Imam sahib of the masjid, he was not ready to allow the sisters to come inside the masjid. He said that it was a rule in that particular masjid not to allow women to enter the place of worship (In fact, it is an exception). Finally due to my insistence and familiarity with the masjids, he allowed them to come as close as possible to have a look at the masjid.
After the official visit, I entered into a friendly conversation with the him. I introduced myself to him as a catholic priest and told him that I have doctoral degree in Islamic Studies from Jamia Millia University, New Delhi. I told him also that I many Muslim friends and have been engaged in teaching Islam to Christian students for several years now. He was much pleased by then and became quite friendly. Then he asked me what I thought of Islam. I told him that Islam is a practical religion and I like and love the religion. Then he told me something which I would like to quote: “We all love mangoes. Do you love mangoes? I am sure you do. But unless and until we eat mangoes, we cannot really understand their taste. You are an educated man; I trust you understand what I mean.” I said, ‘Oh, Yes’ and gave him a gentle smile.
At times we meet some good people; but who do not sufficiently think about the religious commitment of the other. One of the essential prerequisite elements to enter into dialogue is to be firm in ones own faith and at the same time open and respectful to the religious commitment of the other. That is the reason I personally approve the definition of dialogue as, “The activity and attitude of the committed and convinced people”. We need more of such committed people to engage in the ministry of dialogue. We the members of the Islamic Studies Association wish that the magazine Salaam infuse renewed interest in the minds of our readers to faithfully and sincerely engage in the ministry of dialogue.
Experience is the best teacher. Fr. Paul Jackson, the President of ISA is engaged in teaching Islam in a novel way. He sends out students to various towns to meet Muslims. He guides them to stay among the Muslims and learn about Islam from the people. Most of the students who have gone through this way of learning Islam have expressed that their knowledge about Islam has improved, that their past prejudices about Islam and Muslims have been removed. They find Muslims friendly and their interest in dialogue with the Muslims has increased. In this issue of Salaam we present the sharing of Sr. Shanty, Amal and Samuel Simick who have done this course with Fr Paul. These articles are the result of their positive experiences of living among the Muslims.
Following these experience based essays we presen three very interesting artlces. Firstly, Fr. Paul Jackson's article, “Do Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God?” in which discusses the theological content of this question and its implication on Christian - Muslim relationship. Secondly, Malcolm Jardine's essay: “Ijtihad: Is the Gate of Ijtihad closed?” in which Malcolm dicusses the importance of Itjihad in Islamic law. Malcolm is an MA student at the Center for Islam and Christian Muslim Relationship (Birmingham University., UK). Thirdly, Fr Herman Roborgh SJ who worked for several years in Pakistan writes about the importance of Christian - Muslim relationship in Pakistan. He argues that trust and friendship between these two communities is the only way to deepen the communication between the communities.
Have a Happy Reading!
Khuda Hafiz!
Islam: a Way of God - As I have experienced it
Samuel Simick SJ
My Experiences of a Model Muslim Community
Amal
My Journey to the World of Islam
Sr. Shanty,OLP
Do Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God?
Dr Paul Jackson SJ
Ijtihad: Is the Gate of ijtihad Closed?
Malcolm Jardine
Christian-Muslim Relations in Pakistan
Dr Herman Robourgh SJ
Sunday, July 26, 2009
Islam: a Way of God - As I have experienced it
Samuel Simick SJ
After a short exposure to Islam and meeting Muslims of Bihar Sharif I came to understand a little more about Islam and Muslim life style. It was not the first time that I was meeting Muslims or learning about Islam. My first close interaction with a Muslim was when I was in high school. We became good friends. However, we never talked of our religions during our meetings or when we visited each other’s houses. Later, when I was doing my under graduate studies, I met many Muslims. Some became good friends. However, I never asked them about their religion or about their faith. Nevertheless, I never met a Muslim who was not friendly. The present exposure to Islam at Bihar Sharif gave me a chance to learn more about Islam and Muslims. Ten days were a very short time to do any deeper study. Therefore, this paper is not a scientific or objective paper, but an expression of subjective experiences. Together with Bihar Sharif’s experiences, I have used my earlier experiences to make this paper a presentable one.
A Muslim
A Muslim is one who surrenders him/herself fully to the will of Allāh. Commonly, a Muslim is a follower of Islam, promoted by Muhammad, the Prophet. Some scholars even try to give full form to the abbreviated five alphabets of ISLAM as “I Surrender to the Law of Allāh through Muhammad,” though it may not be widely accepted as the real meaning. In every Muslim’s heart the words ‘Allāhu Akbar, Lā ilāha illa-llāh Muhammadun rasūlu-llāh’ (Allah is great, there is no god but God: Muhammad is the messenger of God) are deeply rooted. This is the profession of faith of every Muslim, and a Muslim holds this very dear to his/her life. To surrender to the will of Allāh (God) is not an easy task, and to know what is the will of God is even more difficult. However, for a Muslim the will of Allāh is spelled out clearly in the Holy Quran, which is supplemented by the life of the Prophet (Hadith) and the other Muslim writings (Sunna). Every Muslim tries to follow the demands made in the Quran faithfully, because, as I have already mentioned, they are the will of Allāh for human beings on earth.
Initiation into the Religion
Every Muslim child is taught to read the Quran—in the original Arabic—from very early in life. He/she is initiated into Muslim religious practices form childhood. It is surprising to see that even children as young as 5-6 years know a lot about their religion and religious observances. They know that as a Muslim, they believe in Allāh and Muhammad as the messenger. They know that a Muslim must offer prayers five times a day, facing in the direction of Mecca; give alms and help the poor and needy; fast during the holy month of Ramzān (though the children before puberty and aged and infirm are exempted); and make a pilgrimage to Mecca once in his/her life time. Children are encouraged to wear a particular type of dress, for example, Kurta and cap (usually white in colour) for boys and Salwar Kamiz with headscarf for the girls. As they grow up, most Muslim men keep a beard and women are encouraged to wear burqa (veil). From very early on in life, children are sent to the Madrāsa, where they are taught to read the Quran and they are introduced into religious practices. Once the children attain puberty, they are instructed to live a physically clean life, as the sign of purity of living. They are introduced to the “dos” and “don’ts” of Islam in these religious schools. Later on, if a Muslim boy wants to study the religion, he may continue his study in the Madrāsa, and the others can go to do various secular studies in colleges / universities. The Madrāsas have a special importance in the development of young Muslim minds.
The Word of God, the Holy Quran
For a Muslim, Islam is a natural religion. The solution for every practical problem is dealt with, rather spelled out, either in the Quran, Hadith or Sunna. Since the Quran is a revealed book, there can be no mistake in it. Muslims believe that there is a book in heaven and it was given to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. They also believe that the language of Jannath (heaven) is that of the Quran, i.e., Arabic. However, this idea may seem to be too good to be true for a non-Muslim, but for a Muslim there is no question of its not being true. A Muslim’s life is centred on the Quran. The Quran, for Muslims, is ‘the’ Word of Allāh, written as it is in heaven. Therefore, one cannot question the authenticity of the book. If we read the Quran, we can see that the book mostly deals with what God did and does for us and what we should do to save ourselves from the wrath of God. The Quran, for a non-Muslim, seems to be a book of rules.
Muslims do not ask questions regarding the Quran. They often quote the verses from the Quran but they never raise questions, such as why or whether the saying could be understood in different ways; or whether the words of the Quran are relevant in the world of today. These are the questions that come to a non-Muslim’s mind, but, for a faithful Muslim, everything that is written in the Quran is Allāh’s words and no one has the authority to question them.
Muslims believe that there are other books (Torah-Pentateuch; Zabur-Psalms; and Injil-Gospel) beside the Quran that were revealed by Allāh to the human race. However, the earlier revealed books were not complete. Since the Quran was the last of all the revealed books, it is the complete revelation and there will be no more revelation thereafter. Muhammad, being the last of all the prophets of God, is the greatest of them all.
Allāh: the Notion of One God
Islam is a monotheistic religion. Muslims believe in only One God, Allāh. Though Allāh is said to be the most compassionate, the most merciful, the most forgiving, all wise, all-powerful, all knowing, the creator of all things etc., but these, according to Muslims, are simply attributes of Allāh. (In traditional Islamic theology the essence and attributes are commonly accepted. This is true here in Bihar). Allāh is also said to be the All-Knowing Judge who will judge both the righteous and evildoers and give either reward for the good done or punishment for wrong doings.
For ordinary Muslims, Allāh is the All-Knowing Judge, the most compassionate or most forgiving. For them, religious practices cannot be compromised in any way. They are more frightened of breaking rules than of doing a righteous deed. According to the Quran, a Muslim is obliged to give alms (Zakat) to the poor, and a Muslim believes that it is his/her duty to do so mainly because it is enjoined upon them. If a Muslim does not give alms, even his/her pilgrimage (Hajj) is not valid. The reality that we see in a Muslim community gives us a different picture. Most of the time the reality contradicts the belief, for we see very rich Muslims and, at the same time, very poor Muslims. If a Muslim really follows the Quran, there would not have been any classes, because Muslims believe that Islam is a class-less religion. The word of Allāh seems to have touched their eardrums and intellects but not their hearts. Islam, like all religions, is a group of people, and human desires always contradict the religious belief. Often we bury the voice of God under human desires, because of which there is domination, violence, fear, and hatred. Such discrimination and oppression are present in every religion, and Islam is not an exception.
Muslims believe that all human beings are created by one God, but when it comes to the reality of God, they have difficulties in accepting other religions. Many Muslims believe that those who believe in One God are all Muslims and Islam is the religion of all humanity. Whatever the differences, one cannot deny the fact that every Muslim is united to another in his/her belief in One God (Lā ilāha illa-llāh).
Women in Islam
Sura 4 (Al-Nisa) of the Quran writes, “Men have fear of your Lord, who created you from a single soul. From that soul He created its mate, and through them He bestowed the earth with countless men and women” (4:1).
The verse clearly points to the fact that men and women on earth are generated from the soul created by God. However, as the chapter develops, we find that more importance is given to the male gender. When we read verse 34 in the same chapter we find, “Men have authority over women because Allāh has made the one superior to the other, and because they spend their wealth to maintain them.” These types of sentences in the Quran have been often quoted in order to establish the domination of men over women within Islam. The Quran was misinterpreted in many ways, especially when it comes to Women. Though the first verse of Al-Nisa clearly says that both men and women are generated from the soul God had created, and there is nothing that indicates that women are not equal to men. However, we do not give importance to such verses, because these types of verses do not allow males to have dominion over females.
I have met three types of Muslim women—I am not saying that there are only three types—through my interactions with them. The first type is those who are poor, timid, uneducated, fearsome and always submissive to others. They are simple and ignorant. This type is the most common among Muslim women. They have been kept at home and forced to do what the male members of the family/society want or think they should do.
The second type is those who are outspoken, but they do not have the courage to challenge the authority of religion and tradition. This type do not find any negativity in their tradition, faith or socio-religious practices. They do not challenge the existing rules or regulations, even though they are oppressive. They generally belong to rich or upper class families. They have many supporters, and they are ready to do anything for the development of the good works they have started or envisioned. They keep their hands off religious matters, and try to justify their religious practices and beliefs. They are diplomatic in a general sense.
The third type is those who try to reform their own oppressive religious practices. This type is rare. They are people who have experienced the pain of being less-human; the pain of being dominated; and the pain of being captivated by a male dominated society. I think these women are much more enlightened than other women in the Muslim community. They challenge the inhuman practices of their own religion and society. These women try to interpret the Quranic verses in a new light by giving a deeper meaning and understanding of the rules and regulations. These women face much opposition, but they do not stop doing the good things they have started. For me, these women are the prophets of the modern world.
In general, Muslim women do not have an equal status with Muslim men. There are times and places where women are forced to remain at home. They are deprived of their rights of education, speech or life. However, the Quran says that women should be given education and all possible skills. Many a times they are forced to wear a veil over their bodies, completely covering them. The enforcers of these types of life-styles upon Muslim women are generally more fundamentalist. The Quran says that women should “…draw their veils close around them. That is more proper, so that they may be recognized and not molested” (33:39). The Arabic word translated as ‘veil’ is actually hijab, means ‘an outer garment’. The veil is used to protect a woman from being molested, but this should not prevent others from recognizing her. If she covers herself from head to toe, who could possibly recognize her? The liberal Muslim women think that the veil should be understood in a new way. It is not the covering of the women’s body, but it should be changing of the attitude of men who lustfully look at women. Muslims may not accept this in general.
Another problematic area is that of the Triple Talaq (divorce by uttering ‘talaq’ three times). Ordinary Muslims think that only men have the right to divorce their wives. They also think that any time they can divorce their wives by uttering the word ‘talaq’ three times. However, the Quran does not give so easy means for divorcing one’s wife. To divorce his wife, man should, first of all, have a valid reason. Then he should have two honest men as his witnesses. The talaq is not pronounced at once, there is a time gap (the waiting period) between the first and the second talaq; and between the second and the third talaq. The first and the second talaq are given as warning to the woman in question. If in the mean time she repents and changes her life style, accordingly there is no third talaq. In such case, the previous two talaq(s) are nullified.
However, ignorant Muslim men use the triple talaq as a means of getting rid of their wives, sometimes with no reason at all; and ignorant Muslim women fall victim to such inhumane treatment. Therefore wives do not want to offend their husbands, lest they be given talaq by their spouse. Their life becomes miserable and they have to live under the constant fear of being thrown out of their own house.
Sufis in a Muslim’s Life
Though Muslims believe in one God, they do not deny the presence of holy men in Islam. Muslims believe that we can go directly to God, but can also approach God through the intercession of saints. Therefore, the intercession of the holy men is one way for ordinary people to reach God. Sufis are such holy men who lived their life according to the Will of Allāh. They are close to Allāh. Therefore, when they pray, God listens to their prayers. At the same time, such view is strongly opposed by traditional Muslims.
Sufis are known as mystics. Sufism brought the mystical dimension into Islam. One cannot avoid observing various Dargahs (the tombs of holy men) in areas where Islam is present. Many people visit these dargahs, either to pay respect to the dead holy men and his family members, or to pray or to get healed from various ailments. They have deep faith in these holy men’s prayers. Unlike mosques, dargahs receive all types of people, Muslims and non-Muslims, men and women, boys and girls, sick and healthy. Usually there is a mosque within the premises of a dargah, and even women are allowed to be present during the prayers, but they have a separate place for them.
Sufis, during their lifetime, usually live a simple and holy life and teach people in the matters of faith and good living. They are seen as the spiritual leaders of the Muslim community. Muslims talk of them as ‘God people’ or holy men. They are respected even after they are dead and gone. Many Sufi Saints have left behind volumes of teaching, which are listened to or read by everyone.
Sharafuddin Maneri is such a person. Who was born in Maner, but lived and died in Bihar Sharif. There are many tombs belonging to the holy people who are somehow related to Sharafuddin Maneri. People visit these tombs to pray and to be healed of various ailments. In Bari Dargah (where there is Sharafuddin Maneri’s tomb) there is provision for the people to stay for forty days and pray mainly for being healed of sickness. I observed many women who were believed to be possessed by evil spirits at the premises. They were there to get better. Whatever the sickness they had, I was touched by their simple faith in the power of the holy man. Not only Muslims but also non-Muslims respect and love him. With love, people address Maneri as Makhdum Baba.
In Conclusion
My interactions with Muslims of Bihar Sharif made me realize that there can be no polytheism in the world, because God cannot be many. However, the One Supreme Being (God) could choose to reveal Godself in any way. God as a Supreme Being has freedom to do so. Therefore, we experience God in various ways. We are limited beings and it is not possible to exhaust the experience of the Divine. The fundamental experience of God is Love. When we experience Love, we feel happy, joyful, hopeful, liberated, courageous and faithful. We start trusting and loving others. A Muslim cannot but feel loved when he/she experiences Allāh in his/her life. This experience of love may be expressed in different forms, such as by following the rules and regulations properly, by helping one’s neighbours, by fighting for justice and so on.
It is sad to see how our human interpretation of Divine revelation could lead us astray. When we wrongly interpret the word of God, it may become a hindrance in experiencing Divine Love. To understand the Divine Will, one has to be in touch with the Divine Self. For a Muslim, the Will of Allāh is very dear and important. The will of Allāh for a Muslim is spelled out in the Quran. Doing whatever the Quran says is better than any other deed.
Islam is believed to be a peaceful religion, and so it is. However, in recent times Islam is being wrongly identified with some violent fundamentalist groups, who try to exploit the name of Islam for their own benefit. Some fundamentalist religious leaders try to use the name of religion to mislead people into violence and terror. It is not only Islam, but every religion across the world that is being exploited by a few fundamentalists to promote their own agenda. Instead of bringing Love, Life and liberation, which is the aim of all religions, they try to destroy humanity by resorting to terror and violence.
I always ask myself, when will we learn to understand each other? When will we learn to love each other? When will we see the reign of God? Through my short interaction with the Muslim community of Bihar Sharif, now I am hopeful that one day we will understand each other. I am hopeful that one day we will bring peace into our hearts. One day we will experience love and that day we will see the reign of God on earth.
Samuel Simick SJ
After a short exposure to Islam and meeting Muslims of Bihar Sharif I came to understand a little more about Islam and Muslim life style. It was not the first time that I was meeting Muslims or learning about Islam. My first close interaction with a Muslim was when I was in high school. We became good friends. However, we never talked of our religions during our meetings or when we visited each other’s houses. Later, when I was doing my under graduate studies, I met many Muslims. Some became good friends. However, I never asked them about their religion or about their faith. Nevertheless, I never met a Muslim who was not friendly. The present exposure to Islam at Bihar Sharif gave me a chance to learn more about Islam and Muslims. Ten days were a very short time to do any deeper study. Therefore, this paper is not a scientific or objective paper, but an expression of subjective experiences. Together with Bihar Sharif’s experiences, I have used my earlier experiences to make this paper a presentable one.
A Muslim
A Muslim is one who surrenders him/herself fully to the will of Allāh. Commonly, a Muslim is a follower of Islam, promoted by Muhammad, the Prophet. Some scholars even try to give full form to the abbreviated five alphabets of ISLAM as “I Surrender to the Law of Allāh through Muhammad,” though it may not be widely accepted as the real meaning. In every Muslim’s heart the words ‘Allāhu Akbar, Lā ilāha illa-llāh Muhammadun rasūlu-llāh’ (Allah is great, there is no god but God: Muhammad is the messenger of God) are deeply rooted. This is the profession of faith of every Muslim, and a Muslim holds this very dear to his/her life. To surrender to the will of Allāh (God) is not an easy task, and to know what is the will of God is even more difficult. However, for a Muslim the will of Allāh is spelled out clearly in the Holy Quran, which is supplemented by the life of the Prophet (Hadith) and the other Muslim writings (Sunna). Every Muslim tries to follow the demands made in the Quran faithfully, because, as I have already mentioned, they are the will of Allāh for human beings on earth.
Initiation into the Religion
Every Muslim child is taught to read the Quran—in the original Arabic—from very early in life. He/she is initiated into Muslim religious practices form childhood. It is surprising to see that even children as young as 5-6 years know a lot about their religion and religious observances. They know that as a Muslim, they believe in Allāh and Muhammad as the messenger. They know that a Muslim must offer prayers five times a day, facing in the direction of Mecca; give alms and help the poor and needy; fast during the holy month of Ramzān (though the children before puberty and aged and infirm are exempted); and make a pilgrimage to Mecca once in his/her life time. Children are encouraged to wear a particular type of dress, for example, Kurta and cap (usually white in colour) for boys and Salwar Kamiz with headscarf for the girls. As they grow up, most Muslim men keep a beard and women are encouraged to wear burqa (veil). From very early on in life, children are sent to the Madrāsa, where they are taught to read the Quran and they are introduced into religious practices. Once the children attain puberty, they are instructed to live a physically clean life, as the sign of purity of living. They are introduced to the “dos” and “don’ts” of Islam in these religious schools. Later on, if a Muslim boy wants to study the religion, he may continue his study in the Madrāsa, and the others can go to do various secular studies in colleges / universities. The Madrāsas have a special importance in the development of young Muslim minds.
The Word of God, the Holy Quran
For a Muslim, Islam is a natural religion. The solution for every practical problem is dealt with, rather spelled out, either in the Quran, Hadith or Sunna. Since the Quran is a revealed book, there can be no mistake in it. Muslims believe that there is a book in heaven and it was given to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. They also believe that the language of Jannath (heaven) is that of the Quran, i.e., Arabic. However, this idea may seem to be too good to be true for a non-Muslim, but for a Muslim there is no question of its not being true. A Muslim’s life is centred on the Quran. The Quran, for Muslims, is ‘the’ Word of Allāh, written as it is in heaven. Therefore, one cannot question the authenticity of the book. If we read the Quran, we can see that the book mostly deals with what God did and does for us and what we should do to save ourselves from the wrath of God. The Quran, for a non-Muslim, seems to be a book of rules.
Muslims do not ask questions regarding the Quran. They often quote the verses from the Quran but they never raise questions, such as why or whether the saying could be understood in different ways; or whether the words of the Quran are relevant in the world of today. These are the questions that come to a non-Muslim’s mind, but, for a faithful Muslim, everything that is written in the Quran is Allāh’s words and no one has the authority to question them.
Muslims believe that there are other books (Torah-Pentateuch; Zabur-Psalms; and Injil-Gospel) beside the Quran that were revealed by Allāh to the human race. However, the earlier revealed books were not complete. Since the Quran was the last of all the revealed books, it is the complete revelation and there will be no more revelation thereafter. Muhammad, being the last of all the prophets of God, is the greatest of them all.
Allāh: the Notion of One God
Islam is a monotheistic religion. Muslims believe in only One God, Allāh. Though Allāh is said to be the most compassionate, the most merciful, the most forgiving, all wise, all-powerful, all knowing, the creator of all things etc., but these, according to Muslims, are simply attributes of Allāh. (In traditional Islamic theology the essence and attributes are commonly accepted. This is true here in Bihar). Allāh is also said to be the All-Knowing Judge who will judge both the righteous and evildoers and give either reward for the good done or punishment for wrong doings.
For ordinary Muslims, Allāh is the All-Knowing Judge, the most compassionate or most forgiving. For them, religious practices cannot be compromised in any way. They are more frightened of breaking rules than of doing a righteous deed. According to the Quran, a Muslim is obliged to give alms (Zakat) to the poor, and a Muslim believes that it is his/her duty to do so mainly because it is enjoined upon them. If a Muslim does not give alms, even his/her pilgrimage (Hajj) is not valid. The reality that we see in a Muslim community gives us a different picture. Most of the time the reality contradicts the belief, for we see very rich Muslims and, at the same time, very poor Muslims. If a Muslim really follows the Quran, there would not have been any classes, because Muslims believe that Islam is a class-less religion. The word of Allāh seems to have touched their eardrums and intellects but not their hearts. Islam, like all religions, is a group of people, and human desires always contradict the religious belief. Often we bury the voice of God under human desires, because of which there is domination, violence, fear, and hatred. Such discrimination and oppression are present in every religion, and Islam is not an exception.
Muslims believe that all human beings are created by one God, but when it comes to the reality of God, they have difficulties in accepting other religions. Many Muslims believe that those who believe in One God are all Muslims and Islam is the religion of all humanity. Whatever the differences, one cannot deny the fact that every Muslim is united to another in his/her belief in One God (Lā ilāha illa-llāh).
Women in Islam
Sura 4 (Al-Nisa) of the Quran writes, “Men have fear of your Lord, who created you from a single soul. From that soul He created its mate, and through them He bestowed the earth with countless men and women” (4:1).
The verse clearly points to the fact that men and women on earth are generated from the soul created by God. However, as the chapter develops, we find that more importance is given to the male gender. When we read verse 34 in the same chapter we find, “Men have authority over women because Allāh has made the one superior to the other, and because they spend their wealth to maintain them.” These types of sentences in the Quran have been often quoted in order to establish the domination of men over women within Islam. The Quran was misinterpreted in many ways, especially when it comes to Women. Though the first verse of Al-Nisa clearly says that both men and women are generated from the soul God had created, and there is nothing that indicates that women are not equal to men. However, we do not give importance to such verses, because these types of verses do not allow males to have dominion over females.
I have met three types of Muslim women—I am not saying that there are only three types—through my interactions with them. The first type is those who are poor, timid, uneducated, fearsome and always submissive to others. They are simple and ignorant. This type is the most common among Muslim women. They have been kept at home and forced to do what the male members of the family/society want or think they should do.
The second type is those who are outspoken, but they do not have the courage to challenge the authority of religion and tradition. This type do not find any negativity in their tradition, faith or socio-religious practices. They do not challenge the existing rules or regulations, even though they are oppressive. They generally belong to rich or upper class families. They have many supporters, and they are ready to do anything for the development of the good works they have started or envisioned. They keep their hands off religious matters, and try to justify their religious practices and beliefs. They are diplomatic in a general sense.
The third type is those who try to reform their own oppressive religious practices. This type is rare. They are people who have experienced the pain of being less-human; the pain of being dominated; and the pain of being captivated by a male dominated society. I think these women are much more enlightened than other women in the Muslim community. They challenge the inhuman practices of their own religion and society. These women try to interpret the Quranic verses in a new light by giving a deeper meaning and understanding of the rules and regulations. These women face much opposition, but they do not stop doing the good things they have started. For me, these women are the prophets of the modern world.
In general, Muslim women do not have an equal status with Muslim men. There are times and places where women are forced to remain at home. They are deprived of their rights of education, speech or life. However, the Quran says that women should be given education and all possible skills. Many a times they are forced to wear a veil over their bodies, completely covering them. The enforcers of these types of life-styles upon Muslim women are generally more fundamentalist. The Quran says that women should “…draw their veils close around them. That is more proper, so that they may be recognized and not molested” (33:39). The Arabic word translated as ‘veil’ is actually hijab, means ‘an outer garment’. The veil is used to protect a woman from being molested, but this should not prevent others from recognizing her. If she covers herself from head to toe, who could possibly recognize her? The liberal Muslim women think that the veil should be understood in a new way. It is not the covering of the women’s body, but it should be changing of the attitude of men who lustfully look at women. Muslims may not accept this in general.
Another problematic area is that of the Triple Talaq (divorce by uttering ‘talaq’ three times). Ordinary Muslims think that only men have the right to divorce their wives. They also think that any time they can divorce their wives by uttering the word ‘talaq’ three times. However, the Quran does not give so easy means for divorcing one’s wife. To divorce his wife, man should, first of all, have a valid reason. Then he should have two honest men as his witnesses. The talaq is not pronounced at once, there is a time gap (the waiting period) between the first and the second talaq; and between the second and the third talaq. The first and the second talaq are given as warning to the woman in question. If in the mean time she repents and changes her life style, accordingly there is no third talaq. In such case, the previous two talaq(s) are nullified.
However, ignorant Muslim men use the triple talaq as a means of getting rid of their wives, sometimes with no reason at all; and ignorant Muslim women fall victim to such inhumane treatment. Therefore wives do not want to offend their husbands, lest they be given talaq by their spouse. Their life becomes miserable and they have to live under the constant fear of being thrown out of their own house.
Sufis in a Muslim’s Life
Though Muslims believe in one God, they do not deny the presence of holy men in Islam. Muslims believe that we can go directly to God, but can also approach God through the intercession of saints. Therefore, the intercession of the holy men is one way for ordinary people to reach God. Sufis are such holy men who lived their life according to the Will of Allāh. They are close to Allāh. Therefore, when they pray, God listens to their prayers. At the same time, such view is strongly opposed by traditional Muslims.
Sufis are known as mystics. Sufism brought the mystical dimension into Islam. One cannot avoid observing various Dargahs (the tombs of holy men) in areas where Islam is present. Many people visit these dargahs, either to pay respect to the dead holy men and his family members, or to pray or to get healed from various ailments. They have deep faith in these holy men’s prayers. Unlike mosques, dargahs receive all types of people, Muslims and non-Muslims, men and women, boys and girls, sick and healthy. Usually there is a mosque within the premises of a dargah, and even women are allowed to be present during the prayers, but they have a separate place for them.
Sufis, during their lifetime, usually live a simple and holy life and teach people in the matters of faith and good living. They are seen as the spiritual leaders of the Muslim community. Muslims talk of them as ‘God people’ or holy men. They are respected even after they are dead and gone. Many Sufi Saints have left behind volumes of teaching, which are listened to or read by everyone.
Sharafuddin Maneri is such a person. Who was born in Maner, but lived and died in Bihar Sharif. There are many tombs belonging to the holy people who are somehow related to Sharafuddin Maneri. People visit these tombs to pray and to be healed of various ailments. In Bari Dargah (where there is Sharafuddin Maneri’s tomb) there is provision for the people to stay for forty days and pray mainly for being healed of sickness. I observed many women who were believed to be possessed by evil spirits at the premises. They were there to get better. Whatever the sickness they had, I was touched by their simple faith in the power of the holy man. Not only Muslims but also non-Muslims respect and love him. With love, people address Maneri as Makhdum Baba.
In Conclusion
My interactions with Muslims of Bihar Sharif made me realize that there can be no polytheism in the world, because God cannot be many. However, the One Supreme Being (God) could choose to reveal Godself in any way. God as a Supreme Being has freedom to do so. Therefore, we experience God in various ways. We are limited beings and it is not possible to exhaust the experience of the Divine. The fundamental experience of God is Love. When we experience Love, we feel happy, joyful, hopeful, liberated, courageous and faithful. We start trusting and loving others. A Muslim cannot but feel loved when he/she experiences Allāh in his/her life. This experience of love may be expressed in different forms, such as by following the rules and regulations properly, by helping one’s neighbours, by fighting for justice and so on.
It is sad to see how our human interpretation of Divine revelation could lead us astray. When we wrongly interpret the word of God, it may become a hindrance in experiencing Divine Love. To understand the Divine Will, one has to be in touch with the Divine Self. For a Muslim, the Will of Allāh is very dear and important. The will of Allāh for a Muslim is spelled out in the Quran. Doing whatever the Quran says is better than any other deed.
Islam is believed to be a peaceful religion, and so it is. However, in recent times Islam is being wrongly identified with some violent fundamentalist groups, who try to exploit the name of Islam for their own benefit. Some fundamentalist religious leaders try to use the name of religion to mislead people into violence and terror. It is not only Islam, but every religion across the world that is being exploited by a few fundamentalists to promote their own agenda. Instead of bringing Love, Life and liberation, which is the aim of all religions, they try to destroy humanity by resorting to terror and violence.
I always ask myself, when will we learn to understand each other? When will we learn to love each other? When will we see the reign of God? Through my short interaction with the Muslim community of Bihar Sharif, now I am hopeful that one day we will understand each other. I am hopeful that one day we will bring peace into our hearts. One day we will experience love and that day we will see the reign of God on earth.
My Experiences of a Model Muslim Community
Amal
I. preliminary remarks
At the outset, I place on record my sincere gratitude to Fr. Paul Jackson S.J and others with whose guidance and interactions I am able to articulate my experiences in the form of an article. As a Catholic student of Christian Theology, my intention in writing this article is neither to glorify Islam, nor to criticize it, and much less, to propagate it. It is an expression of the insights I gathered during my interactions with our Muslim brethren in Sasaram town and in Murlipur village, in Bihar within a limited time. Since it is my first-hand experience, I bring this out for further reflection and contemplation, for my personal growth and for others to react to and to reflect upon.
II. My primordial ‘ALLAH’ EXPERIENCE
Since my childhood somehow or the other I had chances to be with Muslims, especially during my school days. I used to have a few Muslim friends. I found no difference in them, either in their physique or in their friendship towards me. They too had the same heart as I had. Except that I saw them going to school on Sundays, when we had Holidays, and, while we wore pants and shirts, they dressed up in Kurta and Pajama. Today, when I think of Islam, the thought that comes to me at once is the grave and the green flag in my village that I used to notice every day. By and large, through newspapers and other media, I have been bombarded with ideas that Muslims are enemies of our nation, butchers, foreigners and unpatriotic in every way. My innocent prayer was that the Muslims must be destroyed. I had a strong prejudice against Muslims and slowly lost my regard for them. This is just one side of the story.
The other side is still more bleak. I was careful to avoid such people lest I become a prey to them. I never dared enter their mosques, much less converse with them. I did all this and more with the deep prejudice that I gathered from external agents. Now I admit that my prejudice and other negative feelings against Muslims was out of my ignorance, and I feel deeply sorry for them. One may question as to what makes me say this.
Keeping this as the base, I had gone to experience the Islamic faith practiced in and around Sasaram. In the beginning, I was reserved and anxious as to how to proceed with my meeting and conversation with the maulvis. In the process, I became conscious of the fact that the maulvis or the believers shared about Allah or anything related to Islam because they were CONVINCED and placed their full TRUST in Allah as representatives of the ONE Islamic COMMUNITY. They believed that Allah was with them and they spoke on behalf of Allah.
This is the primordial Allah experience, which has not only transformed my life but also made me realize as to how I should direct my life in service of the people of Bihar.
III. MY ISLAM EXPERIENCES WITH CRITICAL REFLECTIONS
1. Allah for Muslims and Non-Muslims
Wherever we shared our experiences, the question that most of them found hard was, “Who is Allah for you?” We do not have the best of answers as we thought we could. Even the best of teachers in the three Madrasas answered that ‘Allah is the one whom we cannot see in this world but in the life to come’. Interestingly, when S.M. Asghar, a retired teacher, was asked about his personal experience of Allah, he had something entirely different to share. For him, Allah is no-where and now-here. He is right inside every single person. This is his experience of Allah and has very little to do with the cultural dimension of his Islamic faith. Observing the different types of answers, doubts began to emerge within me. The book of the Quran, the prophets and other Islamic teachings, are the fruit of the religious experience of someone or of a few people in the past, for example, the prophet Mohammed. How does his religious experience still bind Muslims or those who follow Islam? In all these the teachings, though directly meant for Muslims, also help anyone who is in search of truth. It is built on basic human values and the ways to reach the transcendent. Therefore Allah is not only for Muslims, but also for non-Muslims, provided they follow his footsteps. It is not enough to read the Quran to be a Muslim, but rather it is one’s pattern of life and trust in Allah, because Allah is everywhere, all potent, omniscient, great, powerful and merciful.
2. Quran: A study from the heart and a way of life
We had the fortune of visiting three madrasas, namely, Dar ul-Ulum Furqania, Dar ul-Ulum Khairiya Nizamiya and the Reza Academy. The first madrasa comprised of different grades with the maximum of 40 boys, and the second madrasa had both girls and boys. The Reza Academy follows a normal school pattern and syllabus. Moreover, there are more than 10 academies and other small madrasas in Sasaram. In all these students are taught the Quran from the age when they join the academies. They are taught Urdu and Arabic. Its contents have been guaranteed by Allah in Sura 2:2: "This is the Scripture whereof there is no doubt..."
Though one may criticize Muslims for their literal interpretation of the Quran, yet s/he should note that the Quran is meant for internalization and personalization, not for mere lip service. It sinks right down into one’s being and it is witnessed to through one’s life. To dramatize this truth, the teacher brought a boy in front of us and mentioned that even if the book of the Quran is burnt, yet the Quran (in its letter and spirit) lives on in him.
I foresee three types of dangers when he explained these events. First, if Allah is eternal, then how can the Quran also be eternal? There cannot be two eternal things existing at the same time. Secondly, it seemed to me that every individual is subordinate and secondary to the book of the Quran, including Muslims. Thirdly, one becomes a slave to the Quran. There is very little possibility of human freedom in such an outlook towards the Quran. The Quran can become a way of life, but not at the cost of one’s life. It is written in human language so that humans can understand and apply its values in their lives. Therefore, the Quran is a way of life.
3. Self-righteousness
They always wanted to infuse in us the truth that they have learned and are living by their sole truth, that Islam is the true religion. Out of zeal or enthusiasm, the teachers praise Islam to the sky by putting down other religions. This was visible especially when they shared about their relationship with the Jews. They prefer Christians to Jews when they want to share many of their religious sentiments, feelings, commonalities and experiences. They do this just because Jews did not believe in Allah or in any of the prophets and, worse still, they killed some of them.
4. Burqa: A symbol of safety or insecurity?
While we moved from place to place, we found women wearing Burqa, especially in the town. I distanced myself from women for many reasons. It is not that I kept them away from my interaction but rather 'they' were kept in such a social condition. This was noticed especially when we visited their houses. It is the women who prepare tea and set the table but it is the male who serves the host. They say that Muslim women wear Burqa so that they could be safe and secure from other men who would easily get "seduced". There are two points of concern here. First of all, Muslim women rarely go out, and, if they do, they wear Burqa. They feel that it is sign of protection from other men. But, what about the feelings of these women? Are they not also seduced by men outside? The Burqa that prevents male seduction can become a window for the women to have sexual feelings for themselves. Therefore, it is only a one-way process. Secondly, it is meant for protection only from others. Often, they are ill treated by their own husbands and kept as a commodity to be used. The Muslim community is androcentric and patriarchal. A Burqa may protect a Muslim woman from other men, but very seldom from her own husband. It is not the same story in the village. In Murlipur, women are free to express their concerns, have a say in the decision of the family, and move around freely. Here they are more protected and feel very safe. The wearing of a Burqa should be left to the individual's decision.
IV. SASARAM TOWN: A MODEL FOR THE MUSLIM COMMUNITY
Having appraised the reader of some of the aspects of the Islamic faith and practices in Sasaram, I would like to present in depth the aspect of Communion and Unity among the Muslim and the Hindu brethren.
According to the 1991 Census, of 2,900,685 people, there are 2,625,871 Hindus and 270,866 Muslims living in Sasaram district, with the percentage of 90.53 % and 9.34% respectively.
Our tour to many Madrasas, Masjids and interactions with persons, enthused our further search towards the truth found in Islam. We went to different academies and Dar ul-Ulum not as inquisitors or as accusers but as Catholics who are still in search of the TRUTH in other religions. It helped us to be more open to the TRUTH also found in other religions. One interesting thing to note is that whosoever enlightened us always fell on the same line of thought with respect to the Hindu brethren. In very few cases, we noticed how they contradicted themselves with regard to other areas of Islamic faith.
1. Hindu temple/Sher shah’s Tomb and Saraswati / Eid Festivals: a symbol of Unity
From the historical point of view and from Islamic world, Sasaram is famous for the two tombs built by Sher shah and his son Sultan Islam Shah Suri in 1545 A.D. Sasaram is one of the rare towns where there is a cordial relationship between the Muslim and the Hindu communities and where the media has no religious feelings so far.
The centuries-old Sher Shah's tomb is, and continues to be, the sign and symbol of unity. Whoever goes to see the tomb also notices a Hindu temple within its boundary. I would look at this not as a sign of contradiction but as a sign of unity, as many talked about it in our interactions with them. It is true that there were disputes with regard to the sanctity of the place for both Hindus and Muslims. Every year the Hindus used to immerse the statues at the end of the celebration of Saraswati festival. Last year the celebration of Saraswati for the Hindus and celebration of Eid for Muslims happened to fall on the same day. There was a lot of friction between the two communities. The Muslim brethren took the initiative to end the fight and they told the Hindus that they would have the Eid celebration at home and would not disturb the Hindus in their celebrations. Hearing this, the Hindus felt uneasy. They said that if the Muslim brethren could sacrifice their joys for the sake the Hindu brethren, then they also could do the same. After much reflection, both agreed that they would celebrate their festivals without disturbing the other. Both joined in the celebration of each other’s festivals. Thus, the same day Saraswati and Eid were celebrated together. This is what we call Sarva dharm (Universal Religion) in practice. This says something about Muslims and their large-heartedness towards the feelings of others.
2. Jihad: A stark conflictual reality of the Self
The word Jihad has become a misnomer for a material and armed struggle, though it originated as a religious and spiritual term. It is taken at face value. The right definition of the term Jihad needs to be defined. Though Jihad has been used negatively and considered lesser Jihad (jihād al-asghar) in the religious sense of the term. Scholars still question the type of struggle the Quran speaks of.
In my conversations with the heads of various madrasas, Jihad was understood not just as a war between two parties, but a reality of the self. The word “Jihad” in the Quran is basically a fight with regard to the inner struggle of the self or jihād bin nafs between the good and evil. This is the greater Jihad (jihād al-akbar). It is more an inner reality than what meets the eye. The militant usage of the term has no place, even when the community is defenceless. This is what happened in Sasaram in the celebrations of Eid and Saraswati. The Muslims had to fight against themselves in their struggle to become good and as true followers of Allah. This is a struggle not restricted to a few individuals alone but binds the whole community. It is the task of each believer if s/he wants to be faithful to the teachings of the Quran. And the Muslim community in Sasaram is the best example of the true understanding of the term Jihad.
3. Inter-religious Dialogue: a means to foster an authentic human family
In our interactions with Muslims, we had the chance to explain the Church's position on Mary, Jesus as Son of God, and our relationships with Jews etc. They had answers to all our questions. It seemed to us that their answers were mostly derived either from the Quran or from the Hadith literature. It was sometimes a monologue. They seldom noticed the commonalities, while giving more stress on the differences in both the religions. In spite of such pitfalls, we found this dialogue is more practiced than professed in the ordinary believers. We awoke in them a way to build bridges among various religions. Our inspiration has its base in Sura 5:48: “We have ordained a law and a path for each of you. Had Allah pleased, He could have made you one nation: but that He might prove you by that which He has bestowed upon you. Vie with one another in good works, for to Allah you shall all return and He will declare to you what you have disagreed about”. This enabled us to arrive at a comprehensive and objective knowledge of each other’s belief. And the Sasaram Muslim community is ever open to any sincere and truthful dialogue with other religions.
4. Contradictions as possibilities of convergence
Right through my experience I felt a deep sense of openness and wide possibilities of making the many differences of the Christian and the Islamic faith into ONE platform. However, there are contradictions concerning the Trinity, the Divinity of Jesus Christ, the Divine Sonship of Jesus, Original Sin and Atonement etc. The values like Love, Generosity, Kindness, Charity, Equality, Happiness and Peace are common to both Christianity and Islam. Such initiatives and experiences of promoting authentic human values could be stepping-stones to bring about a close collaboration and combined efforts in building a mutual relationship between the Christians and Muslims in Sasaram town. This was very evident in my interactions with them.
V. MURLIPUR: A MINI HEAVEN ON EARTH
If one would ever want to visit heaven on this earth, I would recommend that s/he should go to Murlipur. It is a village twenty kilometers away from Sasaram town. It consists of more than 227 families of whom 55 are Muslim. There is a small Muslim community as compared to the Muslim population in the near-by villages. Other residents are mainly Hindus belonging to various castes.
I am still deeply affected by the hospitality I received by the Muslims and the Hindus of Murlipur village. Any stranger going to the village for the first time would agree with me. On the very first day, when we met Mr. Shahe Alam Ansari, a teacher of the local school, my feelings of joy had no bounds. I had heard about him, his family and his edifying life from my predecessors. Now I had the chance to experience him fully.
1. A friendship with no religious bias
Right from the day we arrived Mr. Shahe Alam Ansari told us that he had been waiting for us for the past one month. He has a close friend by name Sathinder, a dalit Hindu. We enjoyed the hospitality of both the Muslim and Hindu families. As these families were very hospitable, so also were the rest of the families in Murlipur. We had meals in the Muslim house and stayed in the Hindu house. We could enter into any family and greet or interact with them. They were very free with us. We could rarely distinguish whether one was a Hindu or a Muslim. My mind was corrupted and biased with a lot of religious discrimination, but theirs was not. Friendship has no religion. Rather, it goes beyond religion. The deep love between two friends (in this case, Mr. S.A. Ansari and Mr. Sathinder) brings two religions together. There is no diversion but convergence. This is what every religion does and is supposed to do. For me, it was a heavenly experience of meeting Allah and Ravidas together in these two persons.
2. ‘In persona’ Allah
Mr. Shahe Alam Ansari was always with us, except when he had to teach in the school. When we interacted with the villagers, and when we meditated on Allah very deeply, what I often found was that Mr. S. Alam Ansari was ‘in persona Allah’ (Allah in person). The invisible Allah was visible for me, and could touch and feel Him. This was the peak of my experience of Allah for me in the village of Murlipur. I could not but identify myself with Allah, especially in my relations with the Muslim brethren and Mr. Shahe Alam Ansari in particular. One among many aspects that touched me was his Zakat. He is so gentle and kind and generous with the very minimum he has. What is more impressive for me is that he lives with his family in a dilapidated thatched house and reaches out to people in need, irrespective of caste and religion. This is the type of holiness or benevolence I witnessed from his life. As a Muslim, he is aware of what the Quran says about being unkind in Sura 107:1: “It is he who turns away the orphan and does not urge others to feed the poor.” For him, charity is greater than the Pilgrimage to Mecca. For him Mecca is Murlipur, and the world given to serve him is Murlipur. This is how he seeks to do the will of Allah in his life.
At the same time, I found that sometimes it was easier for me to relate with the Muslim brethren in the village than in the town. At the depth dimension, I found it more difficult to believe in the conceptual and other-worldly Allah than in believing in the authentic life of the Muslims.
It is true that, in this mini heaven on earth (Murlipur), you may not find philosophers, but you will find followers of their faith in Allah or in Ravidass or in Ram.
3. Rich Symbolism: a sign of profound union and Communion
We are aware that every religion is comprised of rich symbols, and Islam is no exception to this. What makes Islam different and unique is the way the symbols are used and the importance given to them. I found no pictures of Allah or any images related to Him either in the Muslim house or in the Mosque. In my experience with Muslims in Murlipur, the most important moment is the time when the Muslim males pray in the Mosque. The community is invited for Namaaz, which is a symbolic gesture of calling on Allah and proclaiming that He is great. The ablution (wazu), different postures during prayer (rakat) speak volumes of their total dependence on Allah. Most importantly, all these symbols express the active participation, profound union of persons belonging to different economic status, social positions, race, cultures, language etc in Allah. Interestingly, these symbols have not changed culturally, socially and existentially. These symbols enrich the community dimension of the Muslims in Murlipur.
VI. CONCLUDING NOTES
I always wondered as to how in the world the Islamic faith, with its literal interpretation of the Quran and conservative way of life, could attract more followers. From my experience in the village, I could say that it is because of the faithful community that keeps the Islamic faith alive. It is not because of human tactics and manipulations, but rather it is their faith reflected in their way of life as individuals and as persons belonging to ONE Islamic community. Let us learn from them and interiorize the experience of Allah in our life and society.
Amal
I. preliminary remarks
At the outset, I place on record my sincere gratitude to Fr. Paul Jackson S.J and others with whose guidance and interactions I am able to articulate my experiences in the form of an article. As a Catholic student of Christian Theology, my intention in writing this article is neither to glorify Islam, nor to criticize it, and much less, to propagate it. It is an expression of the insights I gathered during my interactions with our Muslim brethren in Sasaram town and in Murlipur village, in Bihar within a limited time. Since it is my first-hand experience, I bring this out for further reflection and contemplation, for my personal growth and for others to react to and to reflect upon.
II. My primordial ‘ALLAH’ EXPERIENCE
Since my childhood somehow or the other I had chances to be with Muslims, especially during my school days. I used to have a few Muslim friends. I found no difference in them, either in their physique or in their friendship towards me. They too had the same heart as I had. Except that I saw them going to school on Sundays, when we had Holidays, and, while we wore pants and shirts, they dressed up in Kurta and Pajama. Today, when I think of Islam, the thought that comes to me at once is the grave and the green flag in my village that I used to notice every day. By and large, through newspapers and other media, I have been bombarded with ideas that Muslims are enemies of our nation, butchers, foreigners and unpatriotic in every way. My innocent prayer was that the Muslims must be destroyed. I had a strong prejudice against Muslims and slowly lost my regard for them. This is just one side of the story.
The other side is still more bleak. I was careful to avoid such people lest I become a prey to them. I never dared enter their mosques, much less converse with them. I did all this and more with the deep prejudice that I gathered from external agents. Now I admit that my prejudice and other negative feelings against Muslims was out of my ignorance, and I feel deeply sorry for them. One may question as to what makes me say this.
Keeping this as the base, I had gone to experience the Islamic faith practiced in and around Sasaram. In the beginning, I was reserved and anxious as to how to proceed with my meeting and conversation with the maulvis. In the process, I became conscious of the fact that the maulvis or the believers shared about Allah or anything related to Islam because they were CONVINCED and placed their full TRUST in Allah as representatives of the ONE Islamic COMMUNITY. They believed that Allah was with them and they spoke on behalf of Allah.
This is the primordial Allah experience, which has not only transformed my life but also made me realize as to how I should direct my life in service of the people of Bihar.
III. MY ISLAM EXPERIENCES WITH CRITICAL REFLECTIONS
1. Allah for Muslims and Non-Muslims
Wherever we shared our experiences, the question that most of them found hard was, “Who is Allah for you?” We do not have the best of answers as we thought we could. Even the best of teachers in the three Madrasas answered that ‘Allah is the one whom we cannot see in this world but in the life to come’. Interestingly, when S.M. Asghar, a retired teacher, was asked about his personal experience of Allah, he had something entirely different to share. For him, Allah is no-where and now-here. He is right inside every single person. This is his experience of Allah and has very little to do with the cultural dimension of his Islamic faith. Observing the different types of answers, doubts began to emerge within me. The book of the Quran, the prophets and other Islamic teachings, are the fruit of the religious experience of someone or of a few people in the past, for example, the prophet Mohammed. How does his religious experience still bind Muslims or those who follow Islam? In all these the teachings, though directly meant for Muslims, also help anyone who is in search of truth. It is built on basic human values and the ways to reach the transcendent. Therefore Allah is not only for Muslims, but also for non-Muslims, provided they follow his footsteps. It is not enough to read the Quran to be a Muslim, but rather it is one’s pattern of life and trust in Allah, because Allah is everywhere, all potent, omniscient, great, powerful and merciful.
2. Quran: A study from the heart and a way of life
We had the fortune of visiting three madrasas, namely, Dar ul-Ulum Furqania, Dar ul-Ulum Khairiya Nizamiya and the Reza Academy. The first madrasa comprised of different grades with the maximum of 40 boys, and the second madrasa had both girls and boys. The Reza Academy follows a normal school pattern and syllabus. Moreover, there are more than 10 academies and other small madrasas in Sasaram. In all these students are taught the Quran from the age when they join the academies. They are taught Urdu and Arabic. Its contents have been guaranteed by Allah in Sura 2:2: "This is the Scripture whereof there is no doubt..."
Though one may criticize Muslims for their literal interpretation of the Quran, yet s/he should note that the Quran is meant for internalization and personalization, not for mere lip service. It sinks right down into one’s being and it is witnessed to through one’s life. To dramatize this truth, the teacher brought a boy in front of us and mentioned that even if the book of the Quran is burnt, yet the Quran (in its letter and spirit) lives on in him.
I foresee three types of dangers when he explained these events. First, if Allah is eternal, then how can the Quran also be eternal? There cannot be two eternal things existing at the same time. Secondly, it seemed to me that every individual is subordinate and secondary to the book of the Quran, including Muslims. Thirdly, one becomes a slave to the Quran. There is very little possibility of human freedom in such an outlook towards the Quran. The Quran can become a way of life, but not at the cost of one’s life. It is written in human language so that humans can understand and apply its values in their lives. Therefore, the Quran is a way of life.
3. Self-righteousness
They always wanted to infuse in us the truth that they have learned and are living by their sole truth, that Islam is the true religion. Out of zeal or enthusiasm, the teachers praise Islam to the sky by putting down other religions. This was visible especially when they shared about their relationship with the Jews. They prefer Christians to Jews when they want to share many of their religious sentiments, feelings, commonalities and experiences. They do this just because Jews did not believe in Allah or in any of the prophets and, worse still, they killed some of them.
4. Burqa: A symbol of safety or insecurity?
While we moved from place to place, we found women wearing Burqa, especially in the town. I distanced myself from women for many reasons. It is not that I kept them away from my interaction but rather 'they' were kept in such a social condition. This was noticed especially when we visited their houses. It is the women who prepare tea and set the table but it is the male who serves the host. They say that Muslim women wear Burqa so that they could be safe and secure from other men who would easily get "seduced". There are two points of concern here. First of all, Muslim women rarely go out, and, if they do, they wear Burqa. They feel that it is sign of protection from other men. But, what about the feelings of these women? Are they not also seduced by men outside? The Burqa that prevents male seduction can become a window for the women to have sexual feelings for themselves. Therefore, it is only a one-way process. Secondly, it is meant for protection only from others. Often, they are ill treated by their own husbands and kept as a commodity to be used. The Muslim community is androcentric and patriarchal. A Burqa may protect a Muslim woman from other men, but very seldom from her own husband. It is not the same story in the village. In Murlipur, women are free to express their concerns, have a say in the decision of the family, and move around freely. Here they are more protected and feel very safe. The wearing of a Burqa should be left to the individual's decision.
IV. SASARAM TOWN: A MODEL FOR THE MUSLIM COMMUNITY
Having appraised the reader of some of the aspects of the Islamic faith and practices in Sasaram, I would like to present in depth the aspect of Communion and Unity among the Muslim and the Hindu brethren.
According to the 1991 Census, of 2,900,685 people, there are 2,625,871 Hindus and 270,866 Muslims living in Sasaram district, with the percentage of 90.53 % and 9.34% respectively.
Our tour to many Madrasas, Masjids and interactions with persons, enthused our further search towards the truth found in Islam. We went to different academies and Dar ul-Ulum not as inquisitors or as accusers but as Catholics who are still in search of the TRUTH in other religions. It helped us to be more open to the TRUTH also found in other religions. One interesting thing to note is that whosoever enlightened us always fell on the same line of thought with respect to the Hindu brethren. In very few cases, we noticed how they contradicted themselves with regard to other areas of Islamic faith.
1. Hindu temple/Sher shah’s Tomb and Saraswati / Eid Festivals: a symbol of Unity
From the historical point of view and from Islamic world, Sasaram is famous for the two tombs built by Sher shah and his son Sultan Islam Shah Suri in 1545 A.D. Sasaram is one of the rare towns where there is a cordial relationship between the Muslim and the Hindu communities and where the media has no religious feelings so far.
The centuries-old Sher Shah's tomb is, and continues to be, the sign and symbol of unity. Whoever goes to see the tomb also notices a Hindu temple within its boundary. I would look at this not as a sign of contradiction but as a sign of unity, as many talked about it in our interactions with them. It is true that there were disputes with regard to the sanctity of the place for both Hindus and Muslims. Every year the Hindus used to immerse the statues at the end of the celebration of Saraswati festival. Last year the celebration of Saraswati for the Hindus and celebration of Eid for Muslims happened to fall on the same day. There was a lot of friction between the two communities. The Muslim brethren took the initiative to end the fight and they told the Hindus that they would have the Eid celebration at home and would not disturb the Hindus in their celebrations. Hearing this, the Hindus felt uneasy. They said that if the Muslim brethren could sacrifice their joys for the sake the Hindu brethren, then they also could do the same. After much reflection, both agreed that they would celebrate their festivals without disturbing the other. Both joined in the celebration of each other’s festivals. Thus, the same day Saraswati and Eid were celebrated together. This is what we call Sarva dharm (Universal Religion) in practice. This says something about Muslims and their large-heartedness towards the feelings of others.
2. Jihad: A stark conflictual reality of the Self
The word Jihad has become a misnomer for a material and armed struggle, though it originated as a religious and spiritual term. It is taken at face value. The right definition of the term Jihad needs to be defined. Though Jihad has been used negatively and considered lesser Jihad (jihād al-asghar) in the religious sense of the term. Scholars still question the type of struggle the Quran speaks of.
In my conversations with the heads of various madrasas, Jihad was understood not just as a war between two parties, but a reality of the self. The word “Jihad” in the Quran is basically a fight with regard to the inner struggle of the self or jihād bin nafs between the good and evil. This is the greater Jihad (jihād al-akbar). It is more an inner reality than what meets the eye. The militant usage of the term has no place, even when the community is defenceless. This is what happened in Sasaram in the celebrations of Eid and Saraswati. The Muslims had to fight against themselves in their struggle to become good and as true followers of Allah. This is a struggle not restricted to a few individuals alone but binds the whole community. It is the task of each believer if s/he wants to be faithful to the teachings of the Quran. And the Muslim community in Sasaram is the best example of the true understanding of the term Jihad.
3. Inter-religious Dialogue: a means to foster an authentic human family
In our interactions with Muslims, we had the chance to explain the Church's position on Mary, Jesus as Son of God, and our relationships with Jews etc. They had answers to all our questions. It seemed to us that their answers were mostly derived either from the Quran or from the Hadith literature. It was sometimes a monologue. They seldom noticed the commonalities, while giving more stress on the differences in both the religions. In spite of such pitfalls, we found this dialogue is more practiced than professed in the ordinary believers. We awoke in them a way to build bridges among various religions. Our inspiration has its base in Sura 5:48: “We have ordained a law and a path for each of you. Had Allah pleased, He could have made you one nation: but that He might prove you by that which He has bestowed upon you. Vie with one another in good works, for to Allah you shall all return and He will declare to you what you have disagreed about”. This enabled us to arrive at a comprehensive and objective knowledge of each other’s belief. And the Sasaram Muslim community is ever open to any sincere and truthful dialogue with other religions.
4. Contradictions as possibilities of convergence
Right through my experience I felt a deep sense of openness and wide possibilities of making the many differences of the Christian and the Islamic faith into ONE platform. However, there are contradictions concerning the Trinity, the Divinity of Jesus Christ, the Divine Sonship of Jesus, Original Sin and Atonement etc. The values like Love, Generosity, Kindness, Charity, Equality, Happiness and Peace are common to both Christianity and Islam. Such initiatives and experiences of promoting authentic human values could be stepping-stones to bring about a close collaboration and combined efforts in building a mutual relationship between the Christians and Muslims in Sasaram town. This was very evident in my interactions with them.
V. MURLIPUR: A MINI HEAVEN ON EARTH
If one would ever want to visit heaven on this earth, I would recommend that s/he should go to Murlipur. It is a village twenty kilometers away from Sasaram town. It consists of more than 227 families of whom 55 are Muslim. There is a small Muslim community as compared to the Muslim population in the near-by villages. Other residents are mainly Hindus belonging to various castes.
I am still deeply affected by the hospitality I received by the Muslims and the Hindus of Murlipur village. Any stranger going to the village for the first time would agree with me. On the very first day, when we met Mr. Shahe Alam Ansari, a teacher of the local school, my feelings of joy had no bounds. I had heard about him, his family and his edifying life from my predecessors. Now I had the chance to experience him fully.
1. A friendship with no religious bias
Right from the day we arrived Mr. Shahe Alam Ansari told us that he had been waiting for us for the past one month. He has a close friend by name Sathinder, a dalit Hindu. We enjoyed the hospitality of both the Muslim and Hindu families. As these families were very hospitable, so also were the rest of the families in Murlipur. We had meals in the Muslim house and stayed in the Hindu house. We could enter into any family and greet or interact with them. They were very free with us. We could rarely distinguish whether one was a Hindu or a Muslim. My mind was corrupted and biased with a lot of religious discrimination, but theirs was not. Friendship has no religion. Rather, it goes beyond religion. The deep love between two friends (in this case, Mr. S.A. Ansari and Mr. Sathinder) brings two religions together. There is no diversion but convergence. This is what every religion does and is supposed to do. For me, it was a heavenly experience of meeting Allah and Ravidas together in these two persons.
2. ‘In persona’ Allah
Mr. Shahe Alam Ansari was always with us, except when he had to teach in the school. When we interacted with the villagers, and when we meditated on Allah very deeply, what I often found was that Mr. S. Alam Ansari was ‘in persona Allah’ (Allah in person). The invisible Allah was visible for me, and could touch and feel Him. This was the peak of my experience of Allah for me in the village of Murlipur. I could not but identify myself with Allah, especially in my relations with the Muslim brethren and Mr. Shahe Alam Ansari in particular. One among many aspects that touched me was his Zakat. He is so gentle and kind and generous with the very minimum he has. What is more impressive for me is that he lives with his family in a dilapidated thatched house and reaches out to people in need, irrespective of caste and religion. This is the type of holiness or benevolence I witnessed from his life. As a Muslim, he is aware of what the Quran says about being unkind in Sura 107:1: “It is he who turns away the orphan and does not urge others to feed the poor.” For him, charity is greater than the Pilgrimage to Mecca. For him Mecca is Murlipur, and the world given to serve him is Murlipur. This is how he seeks to do the will of Allah in his life.
At the same time, I found that sometimes it was easier for me to relate with the Muslim brethren in the village than in the town. At the depth dimension, I found it more difficult to believe in the conceptual and other-worldly Allah than in believing in the authentic life of the Muslims.
It is true that, in this mini heaven on earth (Murlipur), you may not find philosophers, but you will find followers of their faith in Allah or in Ravidass or in Ram.
3. Rich Symbolism: a sign of profound union and Communion
We are aware that every religion is comprised of rich symbols, and Islam is no exception to this. What makes Islam different and unique is the way the symbols are used and the importance given to them. I found no pictures of Allah or any images related to Him either in the Muslim house or in the Mosque. In my experience with Muslims in Murlipur, the most important moment is the time when the Muslim males pray in the Mosque. The community is invited for Namaaz, which is a symbolic gesture of calling on Allah and proclaiming that He is great. The ablution (wazu), different postures during prayer (rakat) speak volumes of their total dependence on Allah. Most importantly, all these symbols express the active participation, profound union of persons belonging to different economic status, social positions, race, cultures, language etc in Allah. Interestingly, these symbols have not changed culturally, socially and existentially. These symbols enrich the community dimension of the Muslims in Murlipur.
VI. CONCLUDING NOTES
I always wondered as to how in the world the Islamic faith, with its literal interpretation of the Quran and conservative way of life, could attract more followers. From my experience in the village, I could say that it is because of the faithful community that keeps the Islamic faith alive. It is not because of human tactics and manipulations, but rather it is their faith reflected in their way of life as individuals and as persons belonging to ONE Islamic community. Let us learn from them and interiorize the experience of Allah in our life and society.
My Journey to the World of Islam
Sr. Shanty,OLP
When I heard that I had to go to different places and meet Muslims in their homes, work places, schools etc., I was reluctant and did not feel comfortable about it. Being a woman I had the feelings of uncertainty, insecurity, yet, on the whole, I felt challenged. When I reached Aurangabad for this purpose, people, especially women, looked at me with wonder. I went around asking different questions, and interacting with different people. I also began to wonder at them, especially, “Why are the women not allowed to go out?" Why do they cover themselves completely? As the days passed by, I grew in knowledge of their religious practices and customs, which evoked a lot of respect and reverence towards them. Being with Muslims enabled me to know them better and I count it as a marvelous experience for me. It has left a positive impact in my life and opened my eyes to look at them without prejudice as my brothers and sisters. Many of my misconceptions were clarified. Their faith in Allah, their faith experiences of Allah, their knowledge of the Quran, the importance they give to the teachings of Prophet Mohammad, prayer etc., were very inspiring. Indeed, it gave rise to different questions about my way of life, my religion, belief system, knowledge about religion and the Scripture. The above mentioned experiences paved way for me to have a new understanding of Islam.
Belief in Allah – The One True God.
The belief in the One God, or Tawhid, is the fundamental doctrine of Islam and serves as the foundation of all other beliefs. A Muslim believes that Allah alone is ‘the Lord’, ‘the Creator’, ‘the Sovereign and the master’ of all affairs. He alone is ‘the Absolute’, ‘the Ever- living’, ‘the Eternal’, ‘the Originator’, ‘the Fashioner’ and the cause of everything in the universe. He has no father or mother, brother or sister, wife or children. Muslims experience Allah in their lives very tangibly. He heals, saves, protects. He fulfills their needs and desires. He is lovable and compassionate. At the same time, He is just. According to each one’s deeds he/she will be judged, and he is gracious and merciful. Allah knows everything. He has no form or body. Nobody has seen Him, but the saints have seen ‘his light’. The earth cannot hold the vision of God, because He is Almighty and all powerful. Bano believes that Allah is so concerned about our welfare that even the evil will be turned into good. He provides everything and owns everything. He knows what is best for us. In the difficult moments of life, Allah is present and has a plan for each one of us. I as listened to that, I found that they experienced Allah in each moment of their lives, though often they were not aware of this fact. Every second, every minute, every hour He is present. Without him there is nothing existing. These explanations and understanding helped me to affirm myself that there is only One God, but understood by the human beings and religions differently.
According to Mahmood Alam Ansari, Allah is everything and all-powerful, so that we need to surrender our whole being to Allah. We need not be doubtful or confused but surrender to Him who has created us. Muslims show that they know and obey Allah through practicing the five pillars of Islam, looking after the old and sick, wife, children, paying due respect to fellow human beings, dealing with everyone as said in the Quran, by performing one's own duty well, by listening and helping the needy etc. The way to know the Will of Allah is to live according to the teachings of Prophet Mohammed, the Last Prophet of Allah, because he has seen the ‘Light of Allah’. The majority of the people whom I met had deep respect and love for their religion, the Prophet and the Holy Quran. They were sure that Islam is the perfect religion. Therefore, there is no need for any kind of change.
The Allah Experience of some of Our Brothers and Sisters
I encountered many people of various life situations who shared their unique Allah Experience with us. Their faith in Allah and in the Quran was amazing. Bano, a housewife shared how her prayer was answered. She cried, read the Holy Quran and prayed to Allah with faith and love with the intention of getting a job for her husband and to live a dignified life. Her prayer was answered when her husband got a fine job, and now they are living happily .She also insisted that both joys and sorrows come from Allah. Therefore, we must thank Him in all the situations of our lives. Because Allah knows what is good for us.
For Mohammad Khan, a personal encounter with Allah which made a radical change in his entire life. He was depressed and was at the point of committing suicide due to the problems he faced in his life. He had no job; his daughters were yet to be married, but he had no source of income. Gradually he started to read the Holy Quran with faith; going regularly for prayer; and surrendered himself to Allah. Then, he experienced peace in his life; one of his sons got a job abroad; two of his daughters got married; and slowly the other problems were also solved. He got a good job and experienced a change in his life. In his own words, “I left Allah, but He did not leave me…”
Mrs. Arshiya Sultana experienced God in each moment of her life. For her, Allah is everything. Her income for a month is Rs 800/ and she found it hard to meet all the needs of her children. One day, when it was time for her daughter’s examination, she had to submit the application form along with Rs. 1000/, which was impossible for her to pay at that time. She was in a helpless situation and was confused about where to turn for help. In her desperate need she turned to Allah and cried: "To whom shall I go to borrow the money? Show me a way, otherwise my child will not be allowed to appear for the exam and she will lose one year of education.” The same day evening one of her relatives came to her home and spent the night with them. The next morning, just before he left the house, he gave Rs 1000/ in her hand and said, “See I have brought nothing for your children, so buy something with this money...” Hearing this she was wonderstruck. It was a God Experience for her. As she shared this experience with me, tears were falling down from her eyes, and from mine too. For her, Allah is like a mother who beats the child for doing something wrong, but the child, who is so dependent on the mother, holds her tightly, crying while it is being punished. Seeing the total dependency of the child, the mother feels compassionate towards the child, holds and keeps the child close to her heart, lovingly embraces and showers the child with her kisses. And the child feels comforted, accepted and forgets about the punishment. As I listened to the Muslim brothers and sisters I became more conscious and clear about my own God Experiences.
Women in Islam
‘When a person has a beautiful diamond so valuable and precious, he/she will keep it safely locked up in a box or in a cupboard so that it will not be stolen or destroyed’. Women in Islam are so precious and valuable that no one wants to expose them to the public; this is the reason why the women are wearing burqa. Though Allah has created both the male and female equal, society gives her more importance and value as she is more fragile. Another explanation of the practice of Purdah was more interesting. Usually the sweets are kept closed, if it is kept open, then, the flies come and sit on it, eat or spoil it. Women are beautiful, therefore men get attracted to them; to prevent it, women must wear Purdah. Mrs. Arshiya said that at the time of Mohammad the condition of girl children was not of survival but of doom. They were buried alive or were not taken care of. Prophet Mohammad raised their status from that miserable condition. He treated women as human individuals. However, he could not give them equal status. He said “It is the husband that maintains the wife; hence he is superior to her. She has a duty to obey her husband." The majority of the women whom I met were in favor of purdah. In the past, I had been thinking of the practice of Purdah as something negative. To my surprise, both men and women described their understanding of this practice positively and also the advantage of it.
Burqa - a Blessing!
A burqa is a blessing to them as it covers the women completely. When the women are clad in burqa men are unable to recognize them and they behave with them in a proper manner. They do not become a scandal for the men to get attracted. It keeps them away from the malicious and wrong attitudes of men. ”As there are possibilities for men to get tempted by the structure of our body we need to cover ourselves so that we will not become the source for them to sin,” said Rabia Khatoon. According to Mr. Alam, both males and females are created by Allah differently, so they cannot be equal in any way. There is a natural instinct in us to have attraction for one another. If we find a girl who is wearing burqa and a girl who is in a T-shirt and jeans, naturally people will pay attention to the latter. Therefore, burqa gives more safety for women.
A burqa covers the entire body of the woman so that she is not exposed to extreme weather and dust. Thus it prevents her from falling into various kinds of sickness, especially of allergies, which are the outcome of dust, sun and cold. A burqa gives them respect in society. A woman who wears a burqa is considered to be one who obeys the Holy Quran, the teachings of the Prophet, and the traditions. Therefore, everyone respects her.
Purdah does not prevent the all-round development of women. They can do everything being in purdah. Purdah is not an obstacle for women to do their various duties and jobs. Rather, it gives them more safety and convenience, so that they can concentrate more on their work. It enables them to be more effective in their respective areas.
The Role of Women in Decision-Making.
As in any other religion, and typical in India, women in the families are allowed to express their views, but may not be taken into consideration. Ultimately the decisions are made by the man in the family. Limited education, having very few opportunities to interact with the society, and lack of experience, are some of the reasons why women do not play important roles in decision-making. “Men take the decisions on behalf of us, aiming at our welfare, so we are not worried about our absence in the decision making” said Zakira.
Women and Education
Young Zeenat, who is pursuing graduation, has many dreams about herself and the community in the area of education. The understanding of education of Zeenat is that educated women will have knowledge which enables them to reason out, speak boldly, confidently and convincingly. It helps to take decisions in various life situations. By using their intelligence they can discern what is good and what is evil, and then put their decision into practice. Education is in fact needed to enlighten the mind from the corrupt mentality. The Holy Quran says that girls also should be educated. In Islam, the major concern of education of women is not job oriented, but for daily life. When a woman is educated, she would bring up the younger generation in accordance with the education she received which leads to the broad-mindedness of the young. I found her as a liberated woman who had her own choice and views of life, yet remained faithful to her religion. Her father, Mr. Badre Alam, also enriched us with his wisdom and experience of life.
Marriage and Talaq
Muslim marriage is a contract. Marriage is considered as the first and foremost desirable goal of a woman’s life. The family ties are very strong and exercise considerable control over the choice of a marriage partner. The majority of women have total dependency on their husbands in economic, social and spiritual matters. Though Muslim women have the right to inheritance, divorce and remarriage, they almost never make use of them. A man is allowed to have four wives at the same time. However, he must be able to feed and maintain, and treat them equally. But a woman should have only one husband. When we discussed about talaq, Bano said: "A true Muslim, who believes in Allah and knows the values of Prophet Mohammed, will never say talaq. When a person pronounces talaq the whole cosmos is being affected. Talaq brings misfortune to the woman. She becomes a victim, and her status in the family and in society deteriorates”.
Women and Worship
“There are times when I long to go to the masjid and pray...” said Riswana Khatoon, a mother of two children, whose husband is a shopkeeper. “Going to the masjid is the business of men, so I don’t desire to go to the masjid at all” said Tarannun Parveen, a graduate, mother of two children and pursuing further studies. Muslim women in Aurangabad do not go to the masjid for worship. By interacting with the women I realized that though majority of them say that they do not want to go to the masjid to pray, at the core of their heart, they do desire and prefer to go there to pray, provided that there will be a secluded area for them. By denying the right to women to participate in the collective prayers in the masjid, they restrict their freedom of movement. The Holy Quran does not prohibit women from going to the masjid.
Jihad –The Holy War
During the freedom struggle Indians revolted against the British. For Indians, this very act was to defend our country, freedom and our rights etc., whereas, for the British, it was an offence /terrorism. In the same way, for Muslims “Jihad is the fight for our faith and to defend our religion” said Mohammad Ata Karib Khan. He invited us to his house cordially and shared his life and knowledge. Jihad, the Holy War, is a religious duty mentioned in the Quran. Today, Jihad is one of the terms which is most misunderstood, misinterpreted and practiced. According to Ms. Nayab, the computer teacher of St. Ignatius School, Jihad does not mean fighting with guns and bombs alone, but the sacrifice one makes to live a holy life, which is pleasing to Allah. For her, Jihad starts at home, the little sacrifices she makes to bring a peaceful atmosphere in the family, looking after the elderly people at home, praying five times a day faithfully and, with devotion, doing one’s own duty with commitment and sincerity, are a few examples. She also agreed that a few people take advantage of this institution, but the majority of Muslims are good. Unfortunately, the media project the Muslim Community as a whole people who are to be feared.
Zakat -Almsgiving
Generosity and concern for one's fellow human beings is vividly seen here. It is a very beautiful practice instituted by Prophet Mohammad .He reduced poverty by this practice. It is a system of utilizing a portion of one’s property towards charity. Every Muslim is supposed to give Zakat; it purifies the property of the Muslims and themselves. By giving zakat a Muslim is showing empathy to the poor and the needy. 2.5% of what one has possessed for a whole year should be given to needy people. It is also a way of doing penance for sins.
Roza – Fasting
When we inquired about Roza, people were exceptionally happy to explain it to us. The fast during the month of Ramazan is known as Roza. It is regarded as a divine institution in the Quran. Therefore it is compulsory. Fasting in the month of Ramazan means abstinence from food, drink, smoking and sexual activity from dawn to sunset during the entire month. This fasting is obligatory for all Muslims, male or female, who are adults, sound in mind and physically fit. Women who are in the period of menstruation are not allowed to fast. Children who have not reached the age of puberty, the insane and the old are exempted from fasting. However, there are children who fast throughout the month like any other adult. Saira, a student of ninth class, described the story of a small boy who observed the fast and died towards the end of the month. The grieving parents were informed that the boy was enjoying the presence of Allah. This story has a great impact on the minds of children so that they observe the fast by their own decision! During Ramazan, a public recitation of the whole Quran is arranged in thirty equal parts after the night prayer. Every day of Ramazan they make it a point to give charity. The effect of Roza is that it enables a person to grow in holiness and closeness to Allah. It is a time to practice moderation, will power, and self-discipline. Mr. Mohammed Mansur Alam further explained that if the Roza is broken, they have to do one of the following: 60 Rozas; feed 60 poor people; or free 60 slaves. Roza is also a way to experience hunger and thirst, which enables them to have more compassion and help the needy.
Hajj- The Pilgrimage
I was fortunate enough to meet a woman called Nur Jahan Begam who had gone on the Hajj. Even though she was suffering from many sicknesses, she seemed to be very happy and radiant as I asked her to share her experience of visiting the Holy Places. She went to Mecca with her husband. When she was in Mecca, she forgot everything about herself and the family and all the other problems which she faced in her life. Allah was very much alive and close to her during this period of time in her life.
The Hajj is the last Pillar of Islam and it brings unity and solidarity. The pilgrims visit mainly four important places. Kaba, the sanctuary of Mecca is believed to be originally built by Adam and rebuilt by Abraham and Ismail. There is a Black Stone inserted in the eastern corner of it. The pilgrims respectfully kiss the black stone. Zamzum is the sacred well which appeared when Ismail was about to die of thirst and Hagar found it and quenched the thirst of Ismail. Mina is the place where Allah tested the faith of Abraham, the father of Ismail. Arafat is the place where Adam found Eve after having been expelled from paradise and separated from one another. It is the place where the pilgrims ask Allah’s pardon and mercy. Nur Jahan said that the experiences in Mecca brought new life to her and her family, respect in the society etc. She said that she has the desire to go for Hajj once again before her death.
Conclusion
As I look back the days I spent in Aurangabad, they bring me tremendous joy and happiness. It was a golden opportunity to be with people who follow Islam and to interact with them, getting to know them, and also to communicate about Christianity, particularly about the consecrated life. There was a mutual sharing between us most of the time. I found that they were very eager and enthusiastic to explain about Islam that they were even willing to forgo some of their personal interests and time for this purpose. During this time once again I felt proud of my womanhood, as many, especially the women, looked upon me as somebody who is privileged and fortunate. Being a woman, I enjoyed a certain freedom and openness from them. I was allowed to enter into most of their houses and interact with the women and young girls. The family bond among them was surprising and inspiring The joint family system kept them very close to one another.
Syed Shahid Anwar Nadvi, the Imam of Jama Masjid, was very kind to me. We had three sittings with him during which he imparted his scholarly knowledge to me. Being a religious leader, he always maintained this position and treated us with a lot of respect and concern. Something remarkable about him was that, before talking to us about religious matters, he humbly acknowledged: “If anything is missing or not fully explained in what I say, that will be the shortcoming of me, not of Islam”. This statement increased my respect, not only towards him, but also towards Islam. Another person who took a keen interest and journeyed with us was Mr. Mahmood Alam Ansari, the computer teacher of St. Ignatius School, Aurangabad. He was very generous to us; contacting many people and introducing me to them, accompanying and directing us to different places and people. In fact, he took us to his house and shared about his life and family. I cannot forget Mr. Ata Karib Khan and his family, whose life revealed their tremendous love and respect for one another.
I thank Fr .Paul Jackson SJ sincerely for giving me this opportunity to learn about Islam in a unique way. This was a learning experience about Islam, getting to know them better and developing good relationship with them. The ‘Allah experiences’ of my Muslim brothers and sisters deepened my own faith experiences which showed me new dimensions in life. God, the author of life, is with me constantly, loving, protecting, guiding and challenging me. It is His compassion and mercy which makes possible my own existence. I also thank the Jesuits in Aurangabad for accommodating me in their wonderful and happy community and providing a good atmosphere, support and encouragement during my stay there. My stay in Aurangabad and the interaction with my Muslim brothers and sisters was a memorable experience.
Sr. Shanty,OLP
When I heard that I had to go to different places and meet Muslims in their homes, work places, schools etc., I was reluctant and did not feel comfortable about it. Being a woman I had the feelings of uncertainty, insecurity, yet, on the whole, I felt challenged. When I reached Aurangabad for this purpose, people, especially women, looked at me with wonder. I went around asking different questions, and interacting with different people. I also began to wonder at them, especially, “Why are the women not allowed to go out?" Why do they cover themselves completely? As the days passed by, I grew in knowledge of their religious practices and customs, which evoked a lot of respect and reverence towards them. Being with Muslims enabled me to know them better and I count it as a marvelous experience for me. It has left a positive impact in my life and opened my eyes to look at them without prejudice as my brothers and sisters. Many of my misconceptions were clarified. Their faith in Allah, their faith experiences of Allah, their knowledge of the Quran, the importance they give to the teachings of Prophet Mohammad, prayer etc., were very inspiring. Indeed, it gave rise to different questions about my way of life, my religion, belief system, knowledge about religion and the Scripture. The above mentioned experiences paved way for me to have a new understanding of Islam.
Belief in Allah – The One True God.
The belief in the One God, or Tawhid, is the fundamental doctrine of Islam and serves as the foundation of all other beliefs. A Muslim believes that Allah alone is ‘the Lord’, ‘the Creator’, ‘the Sovereign and the master’ of all affairs. He alone is ‘the Absolute’, ‘the Ever- living’, ‘the Eternal’, ‘the Originator’, ‘the Fashioner’ and the cause of everything in the universe. He has no father or mother, brother or sister, wife or children. Muslims experience Allah in their lives very tangibly. He heals, saves, protects. He fulfills their needs and desires. He is lovable and compassionate. At the same time, He is just. According to each one’s deeds he/she will be judged, and he is gracious and merciful. Allah knows everything. He has no form or body. Nobody has seen Him, but the saints have seen ‘his light’. The earth cannot hold the vision of God, because He is Almighty and all powerful. Bano believes that Allah is so concerned about our welfare that even the evil will be turned into good. He provides everything and owns everything. He knows what is best for us. In the difficult moments of life, Allah is present and has a plan for each one of us. I as listened to that, I found that they experienced Allah in each moment of their lives, though often they were not aware of this fact. Every second, every minute, every hour He is present. Without him there is nothing existing. These explanations and understanding helped me to affirm myself that there is only One God, but understood by the human beings and religions differently.
According to Mahmood Alam Ansari, Allah is everything and all-powerful, so that we need to surrender our whole being to Allah. We need not be doubtful or confused but surrender to Him who has created us. Muslims show that they know and obey Allah through practicing the five pillars of Islam, looking after the old and sick, wife, children, paying due respect to fellow human beings, dealing with everyone as said in the Quran, by performing one's own duty well, by listening and helping the needy etc. The way to know the Will of Allah is to live according to the teachings of Prophet Mohammed, the Last Prophet of Allah, because he has seen the ‘Light of Allah’. The majority of the people whom I met had deep respect and love for their religion, the Prophet and the Holy Quran. They were sure that Islam is the perfect religion. Therefore, there is no need for any kind of change.
The Allah Experience of some of Our Brothers and Sisters
I encountered many people of various life situations who shared their unique Allah Experience with us. Their faith in Allah and in the Quran was amazing. Bano, a housewife shared how her prayer was answered. She cried, read the Holy Quran and prayed to Allah with faith and love with the intention of getting a job for her husband and to live a dignified life. Her prayer was answered when her husband got a fine job, and now they are living happily .She also insisted that both joys and sorrows come from Allah. Therefore, we must thank Him in all the situations of our lives. Because Allah knows what is good for us.
For Mohammad Khan, a personal encounter with Allah which made a radical change in his entire life. He was depressed and was at the point of committing suicide due to the problems he faced in his life. He had no job; his daughters were yet to be married, but he had no source of income. Gradually he started to read the Holy Quran with faith; going regularly for prayer; and surrendered himself to Allah. Then, he experienced peace in his life; one of his sons got a job abroad; two of his daughters got married; and slowly the other problems were also solved. He got a good job and experienced a change in his life. In his own words, “I left Allah, but He did not leave me…”
Mrs. Arshiya Sultana experienced God in each moment of her life. For her, Allah is everything. Her income for a month is Rs 800/ and she found it hard to meet all the needs of her children. One day, when it was time for her daughter’s examination, she had to submit the application form along with Rs. 1000/, which was impossible for her to pay at that time. She was in a helpless situation and was confused about where to turn for help. In her desperate need she turned to Allah and cried: "To whom shall I go to borrow the money? Show me a way, otherwise my child will not be allowed to appear for the exam and she will lose one year of education.” The same day evening one of her relatives came to her home and spent the night with them. The next morning, just before he left the house, he gave Rs 1000/ in her hand and said, “See I have brought nothing for your children, so buy something with this money...” Hearing this she was wonderstruck. It was a God Experience for her. As she shared this experience with me, tears were falling down from her eyes, and from mine too. For her, Allah is like a mother who beats the child for doing something wrong, but the child, who is so dependent on the mother, holds her tightly, crying while it is being punished. Seeing the total dependency of the child, the mother feels compassionate towards the child, holds and keeps the child close to her heart, lovingly embraces and showers the child with her kisses. And the child feels comforted, accepted and forgets about the punishment. As I listened to the Muslim brothers and sisters I became more conscious and clear about my own God Experiences.
Women in Islam
‘When a person has a beautiful diamond so valuable and precious, he/she will keep it safely locked up in a box or in a cupboard so that it will not be stolen or destroyed’. Women in Islam are so precious and valuable that no one wants to expose them to the public; this is the reason why the women are wearing burqa. Though Allah has created both the male and female equal, society gives her more importance and value as she is more fragile. Another explanation of the practice of Purdah was more interesting. Usually the sweets are kept closed, if it is kept open, then, the flies come and sit on it, eat or spoil it. Women are beautiful, therefore men get attracted to them; to prevent it, women must wear Purdah. Mrs. Arshiya said that at the time of Mohammad the condition of girl children was not of survival but of doom. They were buried alive or were not taken care of. Prophet Mohammad raised their status from that miserable condition. He treated women as human individuals. However, he could not give them equal status. He said “It is the husband that maintains the wife; hence he is superior to her. She has a duty to obey her husband." The majority of the women whom I met were in favor of purdah. In the past, I had been thinking of the practice of Purdah as something negative. To my surprise, both men and women described their understanding of this practice positively and also the advantage of it.
Burqa - a Blessing!
A burqa is a blessing to them as it covers the women completely. When the women are clad in burqa men are unable to recognize them and they behave with them in a proper manner. They do not become a scandal for the men to get attracted. It keeps them away from the malicious and wrong attitudes of men. ”As there are possibilities for men to get tempted by the structure of our body we need to cover ourselves so that we will not become the source for them to sin,” said Rabia Khatoon. According to Mr. Alam, both males and females are created by Allah differently, so they cannot be equal in any way. There is a natural instinct in us to have attraction for one another. If we find a girl who is wearing burqa and a girl who is in a T-shirt and jeans, naturally people will pay attention to the latter. Therefore, burqa gives more safety for women.
A burqa covers the entire body of the woman so that she is not exposed to extreme weather and dust. Thus it prevents her from falling into various kinds of sickness, especially of allergies, which are the outcome of dust, sun and cold. A burqa gives them respect in society. A woman who wears a burqa is considered to be one who obeys the Holy Quran, the teachings of the Prophet, and the traditions. Therefore, everyone respects her.
Purdah does not prevent the all-round development of women. They can do everything being in purdah. Purdah is not an obstacle for women to do their various duties and jobs. Rather, it gives them more safety and convenience, so that they can concentrate more on their work. It enables them to be more effective in their respective areas.
The Role of Women in Decision-Making.
As in any other religion, and typical in India, women in the families are allowed to express their views, but may not be taken into consideration. Ultimately the decisions are made by the man in the family. Limited education, having very few opportunities to interact with the society, and lack of experience, are some of the reasons why women do not play important roles in decision-making. “Men take the decisions on behalf of us, aiming at our welfare, so we are not worried about our absence in the decision making” said Zakira.
Women and Education
Young Zeenat, who is pursuing graduation, has many dreams about herself and the community in the area of education. The understanding of education of Zeenat is that educated women will have knowledge which enables them to reason out, speak boldly, confidently and convincingly. It helps to take decisions in various life situations. By using their intelligence they can discern what is good and what is evil, and then put their decision into practice. Education is in fact needed to enlighten the mind from the corrupt mentality. The Holy Quran says that girls also should be educated. In Islam, the major concern of education of women is not job oriented, but for daily life. When a woman is educated, she would bring up the younger generation in accordance with the education she received which leads to the broad-mindedness of the young. I found her as a liberated woman who had her own choice and views of life, yet remained faithful to her religion. Her father, Mr. Badre Alam, also enriched us with his wisdom and experience of life.
Marriage and Talaq
Muslim marriage is a contract. Marriage is considered as the first and foremost desirable goal of a woman’s life. The family ties are very strong and exercise considerable control over the choice of a marriage partner. The majority of women have total dependency on their husbands in economic, social and spiritual matters. Though Muslim women have the right to inheritance, divorce and remarriage, they almost never make use of them. A man is allowed to have four wives at the same time. However, he must be able to feed and maintain, and treat them equally. But a woman should have only one husband. When we discussed about talaq, Bano said: "A true Muslim, who believes in Allah and knows the values of Prophet Mohammed, will never say talaq. When a person pronounces talaq the whole cosmos is being affected. Talaq brings misfortune to the woman. She becomes a victim, and her status in the family and in society deteriorates”.
Women and Worship
“There are times when I long to go to the masjid and pray...” said Riswana Khatoon, a mother of two children, whose husband is a shopkeeper. “Going to the masjid is the business of men, so I don’t desire to go to the masjid at all” said Tarannun Parveen, a graduate, mother of two children and pursuing further studies. Muslim women in Aurangabad do not go to the masjid for worship. By interacting with the women I realized that though majority of them say that they do not want to go to the masjid to pray, at the core of their heart, they do desire and prefer to go there to pray, provided that there will be a secluded area for them. By denying the right to women to participate in the collective prayers in the masjid, they restrict their freedom of movement. The Holy Quran does not prohibit women from going to the masjid.
Jihad –The Holy War
During the freedom struggle Indians revolted against the British. For Indians, this very act was to defend our country, freedom and our rights etc., whereas, for the British, it was an offence /terrorism. In the same way, for Muslims “Jihad is the fight for our faith and to defend our religion” said Mohammad Ata Karib Khan. He invited us to his house cordially and shared his life and knowledge. Jihad, the Holy War, is a religious duty mentioned in the Quran. Today, Jihad is one of the terms which is most misunderstood, misinterpreted and practiced. According to Ms. Nayab, the computer teacher of St. Ignatius School, Jihad does not mean fighting with guns and bombs alone, but the sacrifice one makes to live a holy life, which is pleasing to Allah. For her, Jihad starts at home, the little sacrifices she makes to bring a peaceful atmosphere in the family, looking after the elderly people at home, praying five times a day faithfully and, with devotion, doing one’s own duty with commitment and sincerity, are a few examples. She also agreed that a few people take advantage of this institution, but the majority of Muslims are good. Unfortunately, the media project the Muslim Community as a whole people who are to be feared.
Zakat -Almsgiving
Generosity and concern for one's fellow human beings is vividly seen here. It is a very beautiful practice instituted by Prophet Mohammad .He reduced poverty by this practice. It is a system of utilizing a portion of one’s property towards charity. Every Muslim is supposed to give Zakat; it purifies the property of the Muslims and themselves. By giving zakat a Muslim is showing empathy to the poor and the needy. 2.5% of what one has possessed for a whole year should be given to needy people. It is also a way of doing penance for sins.
Roza – Fasting
When we inquired about Roza, people were exceptionally happy to explain it to us. The fast during the month of Ramazan is known as Roza. It is regarded as a divine institution in the Quran. Therefore it is compulsory. Fasting in the month of Ramazan means abstinence from food, drink, smoking and sexual activity from dawn to sunset during the entire month. This fasting is obligatory for all Muslims, male or female, who are adults, sound in mind and physically fit. Women who are in the period of menstruation are not allowed to fast. Children who have not reached the age of puberty, the insane and the old are exempted from fasting. However, there are children who fast throughout the month like any other adult. Saira, a student of ninth class, described the story of a small boy who observed the fast and died towards the end of the month. The grieving parents were informed that the boy was enjoying the presence of Allah. This story has a great impact on the minds of children so that they observe the fast by their own decision! During Ramazan, a public recitation of the whole Quran is arranged in thirty equal parts after the night prayer. Every day of Ramazan they make it a point to give charity. The effect of Roza is that it enables a person to grow in holiness and closeness to Allah. It is a time to practice moderation, will power, and self-discipline. Mr. Mohammed Mansur Alam further explained that if the Roza is broken, they have to do one of the following: 60 Rozas; feed 60 poor people; or free 60 slaves. Roza is also a way to experience hunger and thirst, which enables them to have more compassion and help the needy.
Hajj- The Pilgrimage
I was fortunate enough to meet a woman called Nur Jahan Begam who had gone on the Hajj. Even though she was suffering from many sicknesses, she seemed to be very happy and radiant as I asked her to share her experience of visiting the Holy Places. She went to Mecca with her husband. When she was in Mecca, she forgot everything about herself and the family and all the other problems which she faced in her life. Allah was very much alive and close to her during this period of time in her life.
The Hajj is the last Pillar of Islam and it brings unity and solidarity. The pilgrims visit mainly four important places. Kaba, the sanctuary of Mecca is believed to be originally built by Adam and rebuilt by Abraham and Ismail. There is a Black Stone inserted in the eastern corner of it. The pilgrims respectfully kiss the black stone. Zamzum is the sacred well which appeared when Ismail was about to die of thirst and Hagar found it and quenched the thirst of Ismail. Mina is the place where Allah tested the faith of Abraham, the father of Ismail. Arafat is the place where Adam found Eve after having been expelled from paradise and separated from one another. It is the place where the pilgrims ask Allah’s pardon and mercy. Nur Jahan said that the experiences in Mecca brought new life to her and her family, respect in the society etc. She said that she has the desire to go for Hajj once again before her death.
Conclusion
As I look back the days I spent in Aurangabad, they bring me tremendous joy and happiness. It was a golden opportunity to be with people who follow Islam and to interact with them, getting to know them, and also to communicate about Christianity, particularly about the consecrated life. There was a mutual sharing between us most of the time. I found that they were very eager and enthusiastic to explain about Islam that they were even willing to forgo some of their personal interests and time for this purpose. During this time once again I felt proud of my womanhood, as many, especially the women, looked upon me as somebody who is privileged and fortunate. Being a woman, I enjoyed a certain freedom and openness from them. I was allowed to enter into most of their houses and interact with the women and young girls. The family bond among them was surprising and inspiring The joint family system kept them very close to one another.
Syed Shahid Anwar Nadvi, the Imam of Jama Masjid, was very kind to me. We had three sittings with him during which he imparted his scholarly knowledge to me. Being a religious leader, he always maintained this position and treated us with a lot of respect and concern. Something remarkable about him was that, before talking to us about religious matters, he humbly acknowledged: “If anything is missing or not fully explained in what I say, that will be the shortcoming of me, not of Islam”. This statement increased my respect, not only towards him, but also towards Islam. Another person who took a keen interest and journeyed with us was Mr. Mahmood Alam Ansari, the computer teacher of St. Ignatius School, Aurangabad. He was very generous to us; contacting many people and introducing me to them, accompanying and directing us to different places and people. In fact, he took us to his house and shared about his life and family. I cannot forget Mr. Ata Karib Khan and his family, whose life revealed their tremendous love and respect for one another.
I thank Fr .Paul Jackson SJ sincerely for giving me this opportunity to learn about Islam in a unique way. This was a learning experience about Islam, getting to know them better and developing good relationship with them. The ‘Allah experiences’ of my Muslim brothers and sisters deepened my own faith experiences which showed me new dimensions in life. God, the author of life, is with me constantly, loving, protecting, guiding and challenging me. It is His compassion and mercy which makes possible my own existence. I also thank the Jesuits in Aurangabad for accommodating me in their wonderful and happy community and providing a good atmosphere, support and encouragement during my stay there. My stay in Aurangabad and the interaction with my Muslim brothers and sisters was a memorable experience.
Do Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God?
Paul Jackson SJ
Origin of the Belief
In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. We have already seen this introductory formula of Christian prayer, comparable to In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate, the Muslim introductory formula. We have also seen the introductory words to the Second Eucharistic Prayer:
Father, it is our duty and our salvation,
always and everywhere
to give you thanks
Through your beloved Son, Jesus Christ.
The Christian belief in Jesus as the Son of God is clear.
The very first thing that has to be stressed, and really cannot be overstressed, is that it is the belief of Christians. In other words, it is not something that can be proved. Christians can give reasons for their belief, but cannot prove it. One of the effects of living in a uniform culture based on a single basic religious belief system is the tendency to absolutize the main outlines of the belief system. Usually there are modifications within the system – for example, Catholics and Protestants among the Christians, and Sunnis and Shias among the Muslims – but these are within a single basic system, which goes unquestioned. If we go to medieval Europe it is common to see it referred to as 'Christendom.' On the Muslim side, there was the Muslim umma referred to as the 'Caliphate.' In general terms, both could be considered as examples of a uniform culture based on a single religious belief system. There were, of course, variations within the belief system, but they shared a common framework. In such a situation, things which are, strictly speaking, religious beliefs, are usually presumed to be facts. For example, the Jesuit priests who came from their European background to Akbar's court in Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 spoke of their basic Christian beliefs as though they were facts that could be proved by reason. A similar remark could be made about the basic beliefs of the Muslim scholars with whom they debated. This mentality has led both Muslims and Christians to refer to their respective religions as "the true faith." As a consequence, any other 'faith' would necessarily be 'false.'
At this point, a distinction has to be made between a basic, fundamental belief – such as "Jesus is the Son of God" – and details of the belief system as it has been elaborated over the centuries. Such a basic belief – as already asserted – cannot be proved. If you think about it for a while, it cannot be 'disproved' either. In itself it can neither be judged as 'true' or 'false.' Such a belief, of course, does not appear out of nowhere. It is rooted in history, in the man called Jesus. Two questions can be asked: "How do you know that Jesus is the Son of God?" And, "What does it mean to say that Jesus is the Son of God?"
The first question could be put more accurately as: "What is the basis for your belief that Jesus is the Son of God?" The answer to this question is found in the specifically Christian scripture, the New Testament, which includes, among other things, the Gospel narratives and the letters of St. Paul. The second question is, in fact, the key question of Christian Theology. Christians have tackled both these questions down the centuries. They are being examined afresh, both historically and theologically, in our own day and age. These are clearly intellectual pursuits. The merit of individual arguments adduced can be weighed in the scale of reason.
The equivalent Muslim fundamental belief is that "the Quran is the Word of God." The same comments could be made about it, and the answers to the same two questions would be similar, but different. The text of the Quran is intimately associated with Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam. It has given rise to innumerable commentaries. It is also the basic source book for Muslim Theology. Both of these are intellectual pursuits. This involves discussion and agreement or disagreement, with a reason, or reasons, being adduced for a particular statement or interpretation. All of this, however, is within the framework of the basic belief in the Quran as the Word of God.
If a person visits a major Christian centre of theological studies and goes to visit the library he or she will be amazed at the sheer number of books on various aspects of Christian religious studies. Even today, the number of books being written, especially in the areas of scripture study, spirituality, theology and Church history, is quite amazing. Something similar can be said about the libraries of major Muslim madrasas, not to mention treasure troves found in libraries such as the Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna. These libraries bear witness to the enormous intellectual activity associated with efforts to understand the basic faith of Christians in Jesus as the Son of God, and of Muslims in the Quran as the Word of God. These efforts flow on to the practical demands of living out one's faith as a sincere Christian or Muslim.
One comparatively recent phenomenon is the worldview of some of the people who study seriously texts such as the New Testament, which contains the Gospel narratives, and the Quran. Previously, with a few exceptions, Christians who were true believers in Jesus as the Son of God studied the New Testament, while committed Muslims studied the text of the Quran. In addition to such people, who still form the overwhelming majority of scholars, nowadays there is an increasing number of people with other worldviews involved in such studies. For example, there are some so-called "post modern" people from a Christian background who are no longer believers yet study the New Testament as an important text. Some such people also study the Quran, again as an important text. Committed Marxists have also done so. A number of committed Christians have studied and made available the meaning of the Quran in various languages. A group of Muslim scholars has undertaken a serious study of the Bible, as is evident from A Common Word Between Us and You, produced by 138 Muslim scholars and religious leaders, and addressed to the Pope and other Christian leaders. The text itself, as well as various responses and reports of follow-up meetings, has been widely circulated.
What is the significance of these new developments? Firstly, it would be naïve to think that they represent the majority of either Christians or Muslims. Attitudes, which have been imbibed by hundreds of millions of people over many centuries, do not suddenly disappear. One still finds polemical material being printed and circulated. Secondly – and this is what is encouraging – a certain amount of this material referred to above is based on a genuine desire to understand, rather than attack, the sacred scripture of the other party. A number of excellent studies are available that can be of benefit to both Christians and Muslims. This is also true of the rich spiritual traditions of both Islam and Christianity. For example, "The Classics of Western Spirituality," published by a Christian publisher in the United States, has included twelve classic works of Sufism, translated into English by reputed scholars.
It is important to see this present situation in its historical perspective. As already mentioned, in the medieval period there was Christendom and the Muslim Caliphate. The sixteenth century witnessed the clash between the Turkish Empire and Christian Europe. Confrontation, not dialogue, was the norm. In nineteenth-century Agra, point-scoring theological debates took place between Muslim and Christian scholars. In the early twenty-first century we are confronted with conflicts, in Afghanistan and Iraq, for example, so it is not as though there are no conflicts involving Christians and Muslims. The encouraging newness is in the small though growing number of efforts on the part of Christians and Muslims to understand where the other party is coming from. This usually leads to mutual enrichment. Whether this trickle can develop into a stream depends on an increasing number of both Muslims and Christians who see not only the need - indeed, urgency – of such efforts, but who also experience this enrichment for themselves.
It is in this situation that we are examining the Christian belief in Jesus as the Son of God. For an ordinary Hindu this belief poses no real insurmountable difficulty on account of the belief in avatars, divine appearances in human form. When it comes to an ordinary Muslim, however, the situation is completely different. Speaking about God in sura 112 the Quran says: Lam yalid wa lam yulad (He begot none, nor was He begotten). There is no ambiguity. This statement has sunk deep into the Muslim consciousness.
While the statement itself is absolute, it can be instructive, in the light of the theory of asbab un-nuzul – the occasions of revelation – to see what had occasioned it and similar statements. The answer to this is probably found in the struggle against idolatry. The Meccan leaders would have been happy with a compromise by which Allah would be recognized as the Supreme God, and the gods and goddesses in and around the Ka`ba could continue to be worshipped – and draw pilgrims to Mecca! In this way, the Prophet's message of the supremacy of Allah would be acknowledged, and the commercial interests of the Meccans would be safeguarded. Their hopes were dashed when the Prophet, speaking to the Meccans and referring to three important female deities, recited: Have you considered Al-Lat and Al-Uzza and the other, the third, Manat? Is He [i.e. Allah] to have daughters and you sons? This would be an unfair division. They are but names which you and your forefathers have invented! (Q53:19-23)
Persecution was the result of this clear stand against idol worship. This indicates the pivotal significance of what was said. Notice that the goddesses are referred to as the daughters of Allah. Sexual activity on the part of Allah is implied and then strenuously rejected. A person conversant with Greek and Indian mythology will be well aware of the projection of the human familial scene, including sexual activity, into the lives of the gods and goddesses. It is of crucial importance to try to get a grasp of the repudiation of idol worship and the propagation of an uncompromising monotheism that is clearly illustrated in the above quotation. As mentioned, it even led to persecution. It seems that this is the context in which lam yalid wa lam yulad originated and was consequently, and understandably, applied to God with respect to Jesus.
If we switch back to the religious convictions of the Jews at the time of Jesus, it has to be pointed out that, for at least a whole century, belief in an uncompromising monotheism had held sway. The battle against lapses on the part of some Jews into idolatry had been a long one, as any reader of the Old Testament can easily verify by studying the text. Because of the now firmly entrenched belief in monotheism by the time of Jesus, when He addressed God as Abba, there was not the faintest hint, or even possibility in his mind, of God as having a female consort! The same mentality applied to Jesus' followers when they were also invited to address God as Father. The whole emphasis was on a child-like attitude of complete, loving trust in a loving, caring God. This is also the spirit in which Christians today address God as Father when they pray.
Just as it is important for Christians to understand the origin of the Muslim rejection of Jesus as the Son of God, so too it is important for Muslims to understand what Christians have in mind when they think of Jesus as the Son of God. It ultimately comes back to the fact that Jesus addressed God as Abba, Father, which naturally implied some form of 'sonship' on his part.
"What does it mean to say that Jesus is the Son of God?" Theologians down the centuries have debated this great core question of Christian Theology. It has even been the source of struggles and conflicts, and the rise of different sects in Christianity due to different ways of understanding this belief. Reference can be made to the turmoil caused by one interpretation known as Arianism. Simply put – and the teaching has to be put simply, if we are not to get caught up in a whole labyrinth of Greek philosophical terminology – Arianism held that the Son was a creature. It has to be clarified that the 'Son' here refers to the 'Word', the Logos in Greek, the classic Gospel text of which is the beginning of John's Gospel narrative: In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. (John, 1:1) The narrative comes to a climax: And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us. (John, 1:14) The "now-in-flesh-Eternal Word" is Jesus. Of course the human being, the man known as Jesus, was fully human and, as such, created. He had a complete human nature. There is no dispute about this. It is often expressed as "The Word assumed a human nature." Since the Gospel says the Word was God, the Word could not cease being God by assuming a human nature. Thus it is believed that the Word, the Eternal Son, retains His divine nature, but now also has a human nature. Anyone who looks – including Christians – could see the man Jesus, but Christians also believe He is the Son of God. Need it be said, once again, that this is what Christians believe. God alone knows the number of Christians who have been martyred for refusing to deny their belief in Jesus as the Son of God. This belief is, of course, shrouded in mystery, and two thousand years of theological reflection have only served, so to say, to clarify what it does not mean, rather than 'explain' what it does mean. A deepening sense of the profound nature of this "mystery of the Incarnation," as it is called in Christian circles, is, paradoxically, a sign of deepening understanding, because it is, for them, an integral dimension of the unfathomable mystery of God.
A simple comparison may be helpful for some Muslims. Imagine a beautiful copy of the Quran. Imagine it is a manuscript copy. Open it up and see the exquisite gold-edged ornamentation of the Opening Sura. Reverently turn the pages and enjoy the beautiful calligraphy. Anyone who looks at it can enjoy its beauty. This is its created aspect. For a Muslim, however, it is much more than a beautiful book. It is the very Word of God. It is this firm belief in the Quran as the Word of God that forms the foundation of a pious Muslim's life. The importance of this belief cannot be overemphasized. It has provided nourishment for countless millions of Muslims.
Just as Muslims are invited to respect the Christian belief in Jesus as the Son of God, so too are Christians invited to respect the Muslim belief in the Quran as the Word of God. There can be much fruitful discussion on a whole variety of questions that deal with historical matters and theological elaboration, but the fruitfulness of such interactions depends on this basic, sincere, mutual respect.
Paul Jackson SJ
Origin of the Belief
In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. We have already seen this introductory formula of Christian prayer, comparable to In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate, the Muslim introductory formula. We have also seen the introductory words to the Second Eucharistic Prayer:
Father, it is our duty and our salvation,
always and everywhere
to give you thanks
Through your beloved Son, Jesus Christ.
The Christian belief in Jesus as the Son of God is clear.
The very first thing that has to be stressed, and really cannot be overstressed, is that it is the belief of Christians. In other words, it is not something that can be proved. Christians can give reasons for their belief, but cannot prove it. One of the effects of living in a uniform culture based on a single basic religious belief system is the tendency to absolutize the main outlines of the belief system. Usually there are modifications within the system – for example, Catholics and Protestants among the Christians, and Sunnis and Shias among the Muslims – but these are within a single basic system, which goes unquestioned. If we go to medieval Europe it is common to see it referred to as 'Christendom.' On the Muslim side, there was the Muslim umma referred to as the 'Caliphate.' In general terms, both could be considered as examples of a uniform culture based on a single religious belief system. There were, of course, variations within the belief system, but they shared a common framework. In such a situation, things which are, strictly speaking, religious beliefs, are usually presumed to be facts. For example, the Jesuit priests who came from their European background to Akbar's court in Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 spoke of their basic Christian beliefs as though they were facts that could be proved by reason. A similar remark could be made about the basic beliefs of the Muslim scholars with whom they debated. This mentality has led both Muslims and Christians to refer to their respective religions as "the true faith." As a consequence, any other 'faith' would necessarily be 'false.'
At this point, a distinction has to be made between a basic, fundamental belief – such as "Jesus is the Son of God" – and details of the belief system as it has been elaborated over the centuries. Such a basic belief – as already asserted – cannot be proved. If you think about it for a while, it cannot be 'disproved' either. In itself it can neither be judged as 'true' or 'false.' Such a belief, of course, does not appear out of nowhere. It is rooted in history, in the man called Jesus. Two questions can be asked: "How do you know that Jesus is the Son of God?" And, "What does it mean to say that Jesus is the Son of God?"
The first question could be put more accurately as: "What is the basis for your belief that Jesus is the Son of God?" The answer to this question is found in the specifically Christian scripture, the New Testament, which includes, among other things, the Gospel narratives and the letters of St. Paul. The second question is, in fact, the key question of Christian Theology. Christians have tackled both these questions down the centuries. They are being examined afresh, both historically and theologically, in our own day and age. These are clearly intellectual pursuits. The merit of individual arguments adduced can be weighed in the scale of reason.
The equivalent Muslim fundamental belief is that "the Quran is the Word of God." The same comments could be made about it, and the answers to the same two questions would be similar, but different. The text of the Quran is intimately associated with Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam. It has given rise to innumerable commentaries. It is also the basic source book for Muslim Theology. Both of these are intellectual pursuits. This involves discussion and agreement or disagreement, with a reason, or reasons, being adduced for a particular statement or interpretation. All of this, however, is within the framework of the basic belief in the Quran as the Word of God.
If a person visits a major Christian centre of theological studies and goes to visit the library he or she will be amazed at the sheer number of books on various aspects of Christian religious studies. Even today, the number of books being written, especially in the areas of scripture study, spirituality, theology and Church history, is quite amazing. Something similar can be said about the libraries of major Muslim madrasas, not to mention treasure troves found in libraries such as the Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna. These libraries bear witness to the enormous intellectual activity associated with efforts to understand the basic faith of Christians in Jesus as the Son of God, and of Muslims in the Quran as the Word of God. These efforts flow on to the practical demands of living out one's faith as a sincere Christian or Muslim.
One comparatively recent phenomenon is the worldview of some of the people who study seriously texts such as the New Testament, which contains the Gospel narratives, and the Quran. Previously, with a few exceptions, Christians who were true believers in Jesus as the Son of God studied the New Testament, while committed Muslims studied the text of the Quran. In addition to such people, who still form the overwhelming majority of scholars, nowadays there is an increasing number of people with other worldviews involved in such studies. For example, there are some so-called "post modern" people from a Christian background who are no longer believers yet study the New Testament as an important text. Some such people also study the Quran, again as an important text. Committed Marxists have also done so. A number of committed Christians have studied and made available the meaning of the Quran in various languages. A group of Muslim scholars has undertaken a serious study of the Bible, as is evident from A Common Word Between Us and You, produced by 138 Muslim scholars and religious leaders, and addressed to the Pope and other Christian leaders. The text itself, as well as various responses and reports of follow-up meetings, has been widely circulated.
What is the significance of these new developments? Firstly, it would be naïve to think that they represent the majority of either Christians or Muslims. Attitudes, which have been imbibed by hundreds of millions of people over many centuries, do not suddenly disappear. One still finds polemical material being printed and circulated. Secondly – and this is what is encouraging – a certain amount of this material referred to above is based on a genuine desire to understand, rather than attack, the sacred scripture of the other party. A number of excellent studies are available that can be of benefit to both Christians and Muslims. This is also true of the rich spiritual traditions of both Islam and Christianity. For example, "The Classics of Western Spirituality," published by a Christian publisher in the United States, has included twelve classic works of Sufism, translated into English by reputed scholars.
It is important to see this present situation in its historical perspective. As already mentioned, in the medieval period there was Christendom and the Muslim Caliphate. The sixteenth century witnessed the clash between the Turkish Empire and Christian Europe. Confrontation, not dialogue, was the norm. In nineteenth-century Agra, point-scoring theological debates took place between Muslim and Christian scholars. In the early twenty-first century we are confronted with conflicts, in Afghanistan and Iraq, for example, so it is not as though there are no conflicts involving Christians and Muslims. The encouraging newness is in the small though growing number of efforts on the part of Christians and Muslims to understand where the other party is coming from. This usually leads to mutual enrichment. Whether this trickle can develop into a stream depends on an increasing number of both Muslims and Christians who see not only the need - indeed, urgency – of such efforts, but who also experience this enrichment for themselves.
It is in this situation that we are examining the Christian belief in Jesus as the Son of God. For an ordinary Hindu this belief poses no real insurmountable difficulty on account of the belief in avatars, divine appearances in human form. When it comes to an ordinary Muslim, however, the situation is completely different. Speaking about God in sura 112 the Quran says: Lam yalid wa lam yulad (He begot none, nor was He begotten). There is no ambiguity. This statement has sunk deep into the Muslim consciousness.
While the statement itself is absolute, it can be instructive, in the light of the theory of asbab un-nuzul – the occasions of revelation – to see what had occasioned it and similar statements. The answer to this is probably found in the struggle against idolatry. The Meccan leaders would have been happy with a compromise by which Allah would be recognized as the Supreme God, and the gods and goddesses in and around the Ka`ba could continue to be worshipped – and draw pilgrims to Mecca! In this way, the Prophet's message of the supremacy of Allah would be acknowledged, and the commercial interests of the Meccans would be safeguarded. Their hopes were dashed when the Prophet, speaking to the Meccans and referring to three important female deities, recited: Have you considered Al-Lat and Al-Uzza and the other, the third, Manat? Is He [i.e. Allah] to have daughters and you sons? This would be an unfair division. They are but names which you and your forefathers have invented! (Q53:19-23)
Persecution was the result of this clear stand against idol worship. This indicates the pivotal significance of what was said. Notice that the goddesses are referred to as the daughters of Allah. Sexual activity on the part of Allah is implied and then strenuously rejected. A person conversant with Greek and Indian mythology will be well aware of the projection of the human familial scene, including sexual activity, into the lives of the gods and goddesses. It is of crucial importance to try to get a grasp of the repudiation of idol worship and the propagation of an uncompromising monotheism that is clearly illustrated in the above quotation. As mentioned, it even led to persecution. It seems that this is the context in which lam yalid wa lam yulad originated and was consequently, and understandably, applied to God with respect to Jesus.
If we switch back to the religious convictions of the Jews at the time of Jesus, it has to be pointed out that, for at least a whole century, belief in an uncompromising monotheism had held sway. The battle against lapses on the part of some Jews into idolatry had been a long one, as any reader of the Old Testament can easily verify by studying the text. Because of the now firmly entrenched belief in monotheism by the time of Jesus, when He addressed God as Abba, there was not the faintest hint, or even possibility in his mind, of God as having a female consort! The same mentality applied to Jesus' followers when they were also invited to address God as Father. The whole emphasis was on a child-like attitude of complete, loving trust in a loving, caring God. This is also the spirit in which Christians today address God as Father when they pray.
Just as it is important for Christians to understand the origin of the Muslim rejection of Jesus as the Son of God, so too it is important for Muslims to understand what Christians have in mind when they think of Jesus as the Son of God. It ultimately comes back to the fact that Jesus addressed God as Abba, Father, which naturally implied some form of 'sonship' on his part.
"What does it mean to say that Jesus is the Son of God?" Theologians down the centuries have debated this great core question of Christian Theology. It has even been the source of struggles and conflicts, and the rise of different sects in Christianity due to different ways of understanding this belief. Reference can be made to the turmoil caused by one interpretation known as Arianism. Simply put – and the teaching has to be put simply, if we are not to get caught up in a whole labyrinth of Greek philosophical terminology – Arianism held that the Son was a creature. It has to be clarified that the 'Son' here refers to the 'Word', the Logos in Greek, the classic Gospel text of which is the beginning of John's Gospel narrative: In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. (John, 1:1) The narrative comes to a climax: And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us. (John, 1:14) The "now-in-flesh-Eternal Word" is Jesus. Of course the human being, the man known as Jesus, was fully human and, as such, created. He had a complete human nature. There is no dispute about this. It is often expressed as "The Word assumed a human nature." Since the Gospel says the Word was God, the Word could not cease being God by assuming a human nature. Thus it is believed that the Word, the Eternal Son, retains His divine nature, but now also has a human nature. Anyone who looks – including Christians – could see the man Jesus, but Christians also believe He is the Son of God. Need it be said, once again, that this is what Christians believe. God alone knows the number of Christians who have been martyred for refusing to deny their belief in Jesus as the Son of God. This belief is, of course, shrouded in mystery, and two thousand years of theological reflection have only served, so to say, to clarify what it does not mean, rather than 'explain' what it does mean. A deepening sense of the profound nature of this "mystery of the Incarnation," as it is called in Christian circles, is, paradoxically, a sign of deepening understanding, because it is, for them, an integral dimension of the unfathomable mystery of God.
A simple comparison may be helpful for some Muslims. Imagine a beautiful copy of the Quran. Imagine it is a manuscript copy. Open it up and see the exquisite gold-edged ornamentation of the Opening Sura. Reverently turn the pages and enjoy the beautiful calligraphy. Anyone who looks at it can enjoy its beauty. This is its created aspect. For a Muslim, however, it is much more than a beautiful book. It is the very Word of God. It is this firm belief in the Quran as the Word of God that forms the foundation of a pious Muslim's life. The importance of this belief cannot be overemphasized. It has provided nourishment for countless millions of Muslims.
Just as Muslims are invited to respect the Christian belief in Jesus as the Son of God, so too are Christians invited to respect the Muslim belief in the Quran as the Word of God. There can be much fruitful discussion on a whole variety of questions that deal with historical matters and theological elaboration, but the fruitfulness of such interactions depends on this basic, sincere, mutual respect.
Ijtihad: Is the Gate of ijtihad Closed?
Malcolm Jardine
Introduction
In this essay, I will attempt to answer the question as to whether or not the door of Ijtihad was ever closed in Sunni jurisprudence. I will begin by discussing the definitions of the terms ijtihad and mujtahid, followed by a brief review of different arguments for and against the notion of closure. I will then present my own conclusions and I will also offer some thoughts on the significance of my findings for the future development of Sunni jurisprudence.
Ijtihad and Mujtahid: Definitions
Over the years, many definitions of the terms ijtihad and mujtahid have been given by different writers. I have summarised some of these below.
Schacht2 says that the literal meaning of ijtihad is exerting oneself. It is a technical term in Islamic law. At first, it meant the use of individual reasoning in general but later it came to be associated only with qiyas (reasoning by analogy). A mujtahid is a lawyer who is qualified to use ijtihad. MacDonald3 describes ijtihad as exerting oneself to form an opinion on a legal matter by applying analogy to the Quran and Sunnah. He defines a mujtahid as one who by his own exertions forms his own opinion.4
Hallaq5 describes ijtihad as the maximum effort made by a jurist to master usul al-fiqh (legal theory) and then to apply those rules and principles in order to discover Gods law. Saeeds 6 definition is similar. He refers to the utmost effort of a trained jurist to discover a rule or law for a particular human situation by applying the principles of jurisprudence to the Quran and Sunnah.
Levels of Ijtihad and Mujtahidun
These definitions are further complicated by the fact that both ijtihad and mujtahid have traditionally been subdivided into different levels. Kamali traces this process from an initial division into two types of ijtihad, independent and limited, by Al-Ghazali to later divisions into five and finally seven classes.7 A similar process occurred with regard to the ranks of the mujtahidun which eventually reached seven by the sixteenth century.8
Despite the increase in classes of ijtihad the main division is between independent and limited. Later classes are merely sub-divisions within the limited class. Kamali describes the two main classes as follows9: ijtihad that aims to deduce the law from the evidence in the sources, often referred to as independent ijtihad; and secondly, ijtihad that is concerned mainly with the elaboration and implementation of the law within the confines of a particular school10, known as limited ijtihad.
This basic division between independent and limited is reflected also in the various descriptions of the ranks of the mujtahidun. Al-Shahrazuri (d.1245)11 described 4 levels of mujtahid/muftis, the first of which was Mujtahid mustaqill (or mutlaq) independent 12while the second was Mujtahid fil madhhab in the school13 (i.e. limited) as were the remaining two ranks.
Nawawi14 says that Ibn al-Salih (d.1245) said that muftis were of two types independent and otherwise.15 He then lists two categories of mufti, the first of which is independent and the second affiliated. 16 This latter category is divided into 4 grades. Aghnides provides us with a list of seven classes of mujtahid based on the classification of Hanafite doctors. The first is full mujtahid (mujtahid fil-shar) while the second are mujtahidun within the schools (mujtahid fil-madh-hab). The other five classes are similarly limited within the school. Kamali gives virtually the same example of classification as Aghnides.17
The Closure of the Door
In his book An Introduction to Islamic Law, Schacht describes a situation where, during the early Abbasid period, Islamic law reached the end of its formative period. After a period of intense and widespread creativity and individual reasoning with regard to the law, Schacht claimed, there came a point when various factors arose to limit personal speculation on the law. 18 These included the achievement of broad consensus on certain matters, the formation of schools of law19, a move from unfettered opinion to systematic reasoning and the appearance of hadith which, in Schachts opinion, made authoritative what had previously been only personal opinion. 20 As the corpus of law expanded the factors previously mentioned combined to give rise (in around 900AD) to a consensus among scholars from all schools that all essential questions had been thoroughly discussed and finally settled 21and that from that time onwards no one might be deemed to have the necessary qualifications for independent reasoning in law and that all future activity would have to be confined to the explanation, application, and at the most, interpretation, of the doctrine as it had been laid down once and for all.22 Schacht refers to this as the closing of the door of ijtihad. 23 He believes that this doctrine merely confirms a situation which had already become fact.24
Coulson, sees the doctrine of closure as formal recognition that the creative force of Muslim jurisprudence had been exhausted. 25 From the tenth century onwards the role of jurists was merely to comment on the works of earlier scholars.26 Saeed likewise believes that many jurists from the sixth/twelfth century onwards had accepted the closure of the door of ijtihad by which he means that there should no longer be any ijtihad as originally practiced. 27 The decisions of the early scholars should now be followed wherever possible and creativity should be limited to explaining the views of those earlier scholars. Imitation was given priority over creativity.28 In the opinion of Al-Alwani29, the closure of the door of ijthad was an idea born out of fear, a defensive measure by scholars who feared that unscrupulous rulers might misuse fiqh to produce decisions which favoured their own interests rather than those of the Ummah. Thus was the idea born that only the ijtihad of the earliest scholars should be recognised, no changes should be made to their ijtihad and that no opinions contrary to theirs were permitted.30
Aghnides states the theory of the closure of the door of ijtihad results from the belief that no more mujtahidun of the calibre of those who founded the four schools appeared after them and further that some believe it is not even possible that they might appear in future. 31 Hughes does not mention the door of ijtihad but does say that the obstacles to anyone gaining the rank of full mujtahid are almost insurmountable.32
The Counter-View
This belief in the closure of the door of Ijtihad has not gone unchallenged. Aghnides is forthright in his opinion that it is a fiction which has no justification in theory (a statement he puts in bold letters).33 He points out that even believers in the idea state that the closure did not arise out of theoretical necessity but due to the fact that there were no longer any full mujtahidun.34
In recent years, Hallaq has emerged as the main opponent of the theory of closure. He dismisses the idea that the qualifications required for ijtihad were so high that they effectively made it impossible for jurists to practice it. He notes that according to Ghazali, there is a sliding scale of required qualifications according to the breadth of ijtihad being undertaken. 35 The theory of the divisibility (tajzia) of ijtihad was recognized as lawful and thus limited knowledge of usul could be sufficient to practice ijtihad in a particular case.36
Hallaq points out that movements which were opposed to the practice of ijtihad and insisted only on literal readings of the Quran and Sunnah such as the Zahiri school and the Hashwis eventually found themselves outside the community of Sunni Muslims.37 He demonstrates also that the Hanbali school had to evolve from holding a similar viewpoint to endorsing ijtihad in order to survive within Sunnism.38 To Hallaq, this shows that the Sunni community actively supported rather than opposed ijtihad. 39
While Hallaq points out that there was very active ijtihad within all four schools, ijtihad which often produced opinions at odds with the founders of the schools40, he does concede that during the last few decades of the fourth/tenth century an implicit consensus was reached among scholars that the establishment of any new schools and possible separatist tendencies was to be considered illegal. From the fifth/eleventh century onwards all jurists have belonged to one of the four schools and none of them have attempted to establish their own school. Ijtihad in order to find solutions to new problems has continued indefinitely however.41
Hallaq goes on to provide examples of jurists such as Ghazali, Juwayni and Ibn Aqil who made great contributions to ijtihad even though they did not found their own schools.42 According to Hallaq, Ghazali recognised that the category of full mujtahidun was extinct but this did not mean all mujtahidun were extinct. 43 Jurists could still revive the Sharia when necessary.44 Hallaq also points out that the contributions of jurists within the schools went far beyond merely commenting on the opinions of the earlier scholars.45
Ijtihad, as Hallaq points out, is a fard kifaya, an obligatory duty on the Muslim community as represented by the jurists. 46 While mujtahidun exist upon the earth they cannot refuse to carry out this duty. Therefore, the only way the door of ijtihad can be closed is not by theory but if mujtahidun become extinct. 47 Hallaq says that while the possibility of extinction is discussed in usul books, the closure of the door is hardly mentioned. 48 He goes on to discuss the controversy which arose over the issue of the extinction of mujtahidun, the Hanbali school and some of the Shafii scholars being particularly adamant that mujtahidun must exist at all times.49 The fact that there was such a controversy, he believes, precludes the idea of a consensus on the closure of the door.50 A further factor which precluded consensus was the practice of selecting a mujaddid (renewer) at the beginning of each century. While not every jurist supported this practice, the fact that the mujaddid had to be a mujtahid proves they were still in existence.51
Analysis
From the evidence presented above, it is my belief that a consensus, as even Hallaq concedes, 52 was reached in the early years of the four schools on the subject of ijtihad. This consensus was not to close the door of ijtihad as a whole, however, but to close the door of full ijtihad by which I mean that there would no longer be any new schools or independent mujtahidun. This was not a formal, recorded decision but I believe it was an agreement nonetheless. The fact that no new schools have emerged since the foundation of the four schools and that even scholars of the highest calibre such as al-Ghazali were content to accept the position of limited mujtahid 53 demonstrates clearly that this position was accepted by the whole community of scholars.
Although there were to be no more new schools, this did not mean that all ijtihad ceased. Despite the name, limited ijtihad provides much intellectual scope for mujtahidun of ability. In the classification described by Aghnides, for example, the mujtahid fil madhab are able to determine the law in particular cases provided only that they follow the principles/methodology of the schools founder. They are permitted to disagree with the founders decisions but not the principles. 54 Similarly, the mujtahid fil-masail 55 are able to use the principles of the founder to reach decisions on legal matters undecided by either the founder or the mujtahid fil madhab. 56
That such creativity was indeed the case in reality is borne out by the examples given by Hallaq57 and Kamali58 of the continuous and active role played by mujtahidun in discovering law. Schacht also concedes that despite what he understands as the theory of the closing of the door, the role of later scholars (muftis) was no less creative within the limits set to it by the nature of the sharia than that of their predecessors.59
In my opinion, the decision to close the gate of full ijtihad was not taken to stifle creativity, as the flexibility granted limited mujtahidun demonstrates, but was a practical necessity. By the time of the Abbasids, the Islamic state had undergone one of the most rapid geographical expansions of any empire in history. The Ummah, once predominantly, if not entirely Arab, had swollen to encompass Muslims of many diverse nations and cultures. If unregulated ijtihad had been allowed to continue there would have been, I believe, a real danger that separatist and heretical tendencies, each interpreting Islamic law in their own particular way could have become widespread. For the Ummah to remain unified and for the state to function effectively there had to be consensus on legal matters. . If a state is to be stable then it must have a stable legal system. Murad, in his defence of the four schools, describes the prospect of unlimited madhabs (law schools) as a brilliant scheme for the destruction of Islam60 and I agree.61
Conclusion
It is my conclusion, therefore, that the door of ijtihad never closed. As indicated by the title of this essay, it has continued both in theory and practice until the present day. What did close was the door of full ijtihad. This however was an implicit consensus rather than an overt one, taken for very practical and sensible reasons. There is no theoretical reason why a full mujtahid should not arise today and open a new school provided they are recognised as having the necessary qualifications. Likewise, there is nothing to prevent mujtahidun of the second rank from interacting directly with the sources of law to provide creative solutions to contemporary problems.
That said, it cannot be denied that there has been a crisis within the field of Islamic law for the last several centuries. The schools have passed through a long period of intellectual stagnation, a situation which has only reinforced the whole idea that the door of ijtihad has closed.62
It has been suggested that one reason that the schools have become moribund is that mujtahidun of high calibre no longer exist in the world.63 I find it impossible to believe this. One need only look at the strong Shia tradition of independent mujtahidun, those such as Sistani and Fadlallah today. Is it conceivable that the much larger Sunni community cannot produce jurists of equal measure? I think not.
The false belief in the closure of the door needs to be contested vigorously. As Menski has pointed out64, it has served the purposes of many groups to portray Islamic law as incapable of change from within. Traditional Islam needs to rediscover and reclaim its full potential and thereby reclaim the respect and relevance to practical rather than theoretical jurisprudence which it has lost. This must be accompanied by education reform which stresses creative skills in addition to memorisation65, in order to prepare jurists for the rigours of ijtihad. I strongly believe that, if the leading scholars have the will to act decisively in the manner I have indicated, Islamic jurisprudence can return once again to the intellectual heights of its early centuries.
End - Notes
2 J. Schacht, D.B MacDonald. "Idjtihd." in P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. eds.Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.CD-ROM Edition (Leiden:Brill, 2004)
3 Ibid
4 Ibid
5 Wael.B. Hallaq, Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed? (New York: International Journal of Middle East Studies, 16, 1984) reprinted in Wael.B.Hallaq, Law and Legal Reasoning in Classical and Medieval Islam. (Aldershot:Ashgate, 1994)V:3
6 Abdullah Saeed, Islamic Thought: An Introduction. (Abingdon:Routledge, 2006)52
7 Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Principles of Isamic Jurisprudence. (Cambridge:Islamic Texts Society, 2003) 490
8 Ibid
9 Ibid, 489
10 One of the four Sunni law schools: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafii. I shall henceforth refer to them only as the four schools.
11 Knut.S.Vikor, Between God and the Sultan: A History of Islamic Law. (London:Hurst, 2005) 154
12 Ibid
13 Ibid
14 Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, eds. trans. Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature. (Abingdon:Routledge, 2003) 192
15 Ibid, 192-193
16 Nicholas.P.Aghnides, Mohammedan Theories of Finance:With an Introduction to Mohammedan Law and a Bibliography. (London:Longmans, Green & Co., 1916) 121-123
17 Kamali, 2003, 490-493
18 Joseph Schacht, An Introduction to Islamic Law. (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1982) 69
19 Ibid, 69-70
20 Ibid, 70
21 Ibid, 70
22 Ibid, 71
23 Ibid, 71
24 Ibid, 69
25 N.J.Coulson, A History of Islamic Law. (Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, 1964) 80
26 Ibid, 81
27 Saeed, 2006, 53
28 Ibid
29 Shaykh Taha Jabir Al-Alwani, Issues in Contemporary Islamic Thought. (Richmond:The International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2005) 109
30 Ibid
31 Aghnides, 1916, 123
32 Thomas Patrick Hughes, Dictionary of Islam. (New Delhi, Cosmo Publications, 2004) 207
33 Aghnides, 1916, 124
34 Ibid, 125
35 Hallaq, 1984, V:6
36 Ibid, V:7
37 Ibid, V:9-10
38 Ibid, V:10
39 Ibid, V:9
40 Ibid, V:11
41 Ibid, V:11
42 Ibid, V:15-18
43 Ibid, V:17
44 Ibid, V:17
45 Ibid, V:19-20
46 Ibid, V:20
47 Ibid, V:20
48 Ibid, V:21
49 Ibid, V:33
50 Ibid, V:33
51 Ibid, V:33
52 Ibid, V:11
53 Ibid, V:17
54 Aghnides, 1916, 122
55 mujtahids on particular questions Ibid, 122
56 Ibid, 122
57 Hallaq, 1984, V:11, V:15-18
58 Kamali, 2003, 493-494
59 Schacht, 1982, 73
60 Abdal Hakim Murad, Understanding the Four Madhabs. (Cambridge:Muslim Academic Trust, 1999) 15
61 Many other reasons for this decision can, of course, be posited. Multiple schools of law would have led to severe problems in regulating trade and economic relations both within the state and with external trading partners. There would also have been the potential danger of social breakdown with different views on authority and crime and punishment emerging. Ultimately, the risk would have been of a de-evolution from a transnational state to a series of city/town/village states. At a more academic level, it makes perfect sense to limit the number of methodologies which can be employed to solve problems in a particular area of the academic sciences. Having fixed standards for investigation and research not only makes it easier to weigh up the merits of the conclusions of that research against other similar findings but also ensures that the intellectual activity is regulated and focused not simply wild speculation. In their way, the four schools were the precursors of the global academic standards used in universities today.
62 Werner Menski, Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. 2nd Edn. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) 342-343
63 Menski, 2006, 342
64 Ibid, 343-343
65 The World Bank. Mena Development Report: The Road Not Travelled: Education Reform in the Middle East and North Africa. 182-184
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/EDU_Flagship_Full_ENG.pdf (accessed April 22, 2009)
Malcolm Jardine
Introduction
In this essay, I will attempt to answer the question as to whether or not the door of Ijtihad was ever closed in Sunni jurisprudence. I will begin by discussing the definitions of the terms ijtihad and mujtahid, followed by a brief review of different arguments for and against the notion of closure. I will then present my own conclusions and I will also offer some thoughts on the significance of my findings for the future development of Sunni jurisprudence.
Ijtihad and Mujtahid: Definitions
Over the years, many definitions of the terms ijtihad and mujtahid have been given by different writers. I have summarised some of these below.
Schacht2 says that the literal meaning of ijtihad is exerting oneself. It is a technical term in Islamic law. At first, it meant the use of individual reasoning in general but later it came to be associated only with qiyas (reasoning by analogy). A mujtahid is a lawyer who is qualified to use ijtihad. MacDonald3 describes ijtihad as exerting oneself to form an opinion on a legal matter by applying analogy to the Quran and Sunnah. He defines a mujtahid as one who by his own exertions forms his own opinion.4
Hallaq5 describes ijtihad as the maximum effort made by a jurist to master usul al-fiqh (legal theory) and then to apply those rules and principles in order to discover Gods law. Saeeds 6 definition is similar. He refers to the utmost effort of a trained jurist to discover a rule or law for a particular human situation by applying the principles of jurisprudence to the Quran and Sunnah.
Levels of Ijtihad and Mujtahidun
These definitions are further complicated by the fact that both ijtihad and mujtahid have traditionally been subdivided into different levels. Kamali traces this process from an initial division into two types of ijtihad, independent and limited, by Al-Ghazali to later divisions into five and finally seven classes.7 A similar process occurred with regard to the ranks of the mujtahidun which eventually reached seven by the sixteenth century.8
Despite the increase in classes of ijtihad the main division is between independent and limited. Later classes are merely sub-divisions within the limited class. Kamali describes the two main classes as follows9: ijtihad that aims to deduce the law from the evidence in the sources, often referred to as independent ijtihad; and secondly, ijtihad that is concerned mainly with the elaboration and implementation of the law within the confines of a particular school10, known as limited ijtihad.
This basic division between independent and limited is reflected also in the various descriptions of the ranks of the mujtahidun. Al-Shahrazuri (d.1245)11 described 4 levels of mujtahid/muftis, the first of which was Mujtahid mustaqill (or mutlaq) independent 12while the second was Mujtahid fil madhhab in the school13 (i.e. limited) as were the remaining two ranks.
Nawawi14 says that Ibn al-Salih (d.1245) said that muftis were of two types independent and otherwise.15 He then lists two categories of mufti, the first of which is independent and the second affiliated. 16 This latter category is divided into 4 grades. Aghnides provides us with a list of seven classes of mujtahid based on the classification of Hanafite doctors. The first is full mujtahid (mujtahid fil-shar) while the second are mujtahidun within the schools (mujtahid fil-madh-hab). The other five classes are similarly limited within the school. Kamali gives virtually the same example of classification as Aghnides.17
The Closure of the Door
In his book An Introduction to Islamic Law, Schacht describes a situation where, during the early Abbasid period, Islamic law reached the end of its formative period. After a period of intense and widespread creativity and individual reasoning with regard to the law, Schacht claimed, there came a point when various factors arose to limit personal speculation on the law. 18 These included the achievement of broad consensus on certain matters, the formation of schools of law19, a move from unfettered opinion to systematic reasoning and the appearance of hadith which, in Schachts opinion, made authoritative what had previously been only personal opinion. 20 As the corpus of law expanded the factors previously mentioned combined to give rise (in around 900AD) to a consensus among scholars from all schools that all essential questions had been thoroughly discussed and finally settled 21and that from that time onwards no one might be deemed to have the necessary qualifications for independent reasoning in law and that all future activity would have to be confined to the explanation, application, and at the most, interpretation, of the doctrine as it had been laid down once and for all.22 Schacht refers to this as the closing of the door of ijtihad. 23 He believes that this doctrine merely confirms a situation which had already become fact.24
Coulson, sees the doctrine of closure as formal recognition that the creative force of Muslim jurisprudence had been exhausted. 25 From the tenth century onwards the role of jurists was merely to comment on the works of earlier scholars.26 Saeed likewise believes that many jurists from the sixth/twelfth century onwards had accepted the closure of the door of ijtihad by which he means that there should no longer be any ijtihad as originally practiced. 27 The decisions of the early scholars should now be followed wherever possible and creativity should be limited to explaining the views of those earlier scholars. Imitation was given priority over creativity.28 In the opinion of Al-Alwani29, the closure of the door of ijthad was an idea born out of fear, a defensive measure by scholars who feared that unscrupulous rulers might misuse fiqh to produce decisions which favoured their own interests rather than those of the Ummah. Thus was the idea born that only the ijtihad of the earliest scholars should be recognised, no changes should be made to their ijtihad and that no opinions contrary to theirs were permitted.30
Aghnides states the theory of the closure of the door of ijtihad results from the belief that no more mujtahidun of the calibre of those who founded the four schools appeared after them and further that some believe it is not even possible that they might appear in future. 31 Hughes does not mention the door of ijtihad but does say that the obstacles to anyone gaining the rank of full mujtahid are almost insurmountable.32
The Counter-View
This belief in the closure of the door of Ijtihad has not gone unchallenged. Aghnides is forthright in his opinion that it is a fiction which has no justification in theory (a statement he puts in bold letters).33 He points out that even believers in the idea state that the closure did not arise out of theoretical necessity but due to the fact that there were no longer any full mujtahidun.34
In recent years, Hallaq has emerged as the main opponent of the theory of closure. He dismisses the idea that the qualifications required for ijtihad were so high that they effectively made it impossible for jurists to practice it. He notes that according to Ghazali, there is a sliding scale of required qualifications according to the breadth of ijtihad being undertaken. 35 The theory of the divisibility (tajzia) of ijtihad was recognized as lawful and thus limited knowledge of usul could be sufficient to practice ijtihad in a particular case.36
Hallaq points out that movements which were opposed to the practice of ijtihad and insisted only on literal readings of the Quran and Sunnah such as the Zahiri school and the Hashwis eventually found themselves outside the community of Sunni Muslims.37 He demonstrates also that the Hanbali school had to evolve from holding a similar viewpoint to endorsing ijtihad in order to survive within Sunnism.38 To Hallaq, this shows that the Sunni community actively supported rather than opposed ijtihad. 39
While Hallaq points out that there was very active ijtihad within all four schools, ijtihad which often produced opinions at odds with the founders of the schools40, he does concede that during the last few decades of the fourth/tenth century an implicit consensus was reached among scholars that the establishment of any new schools and possible separatist tendencies was to be considered illegal. From the fifth/eleventh century onwards all jurists have belonged to one of the four schools and none of them have attempted to establish their own school. Ijtihad in order to find solutions to new problems has continued indefinitely however.41
Hallaq goes on to provide examples of jurists such as Ghazali, Juwayni and Ibn Aqil who made great contributions to ijtihad even though they did not found their own schools.42 According to Hallaq, Ghazali recognised that the category of full mujtahidun was extinct but this did not mean all mujtahidun were extinct. 43 Jurists could still revive the Sharia when necessary.44 Hallaq also points out that the contributions of jurists within the schools went far beyond merely commenting on the opinions of the earlier scholars.45
Ijtihad, as Hallaq points out, is a fard kifaya, an obligatory duty on the Muslim community as represented by the jurists. 46 While mujtahidun exist upon the earth they cannot refuse to carry out this duty. Therefore, the only way the door of ijtihad can be closed is not by theory but if mujtahidun become extinct. 47 Hallaq says that while the possibility of extinction is discussed in usul books, the closure of the door is hardly mentioned. 48 He goes on to discuss the controversy which arose over the issue of the extinction of mujtahidun, the Hanbali school and some of the Shafii scholars being particularly adamant that mujtahidun must exist at all times.49 The fact that there was such a controversy, he believes, precludes the idea of a consensus on the closure of the door.50 A further factor which precluded consensus was the practice of selecting a mujaddid (renewer) at the beginning of each century. While not every jurist supported this practice, the fact that the mujaddid had to be a mujtahid proves they were still in existence.51
Analysis
From the evidence presented above, it is my belief that a consensus, as even Hallaq concedes, 52 was reached in the early years of the four schools on the subject of ijtihad. This consensus was not to close the door of ijtihad as a whole, however, but to close the door of full ijtihad by which I mean that there would no longer be any new schools or independent mujtahidun. This was not a formal, recorded decision but I believe it was an agreement nonetheless. The fact that no new schools have emerged since the foundation of the four schools and that even scholars of the highest calibre such as al-Ghazali were content to accept the position of limited mujtahid 53 demonstrates clearly that this position was accepted by the whole community of scholars.
Although there were to be no more new schools, this did not mean that all ijtihad ceased. Despite the name, limited ijtihad provides much intellectual scope for mujtahidun of ability. In the classification described by Aghnides, for example, the mujtahid fil madhab are able to determine the law in particular cases provided only that they follow the principles/methodology of the schools founder. They are permitted to disagree with the founders decisions but not the principles. 54 Similarly, the mujtahid fil-masail 55 are able to use the principles of the founder to reach decisions on legal matters undecided by either the founder or the mujtahid fil madhab. 56
That such creativity was indeed the case in reality is borne out by the examples given by Hallaq57 and Kamali58 of the continuous and active role played by mujtahidun in discovering law. Schacht also concedes that despite what he understands as the theory of the closing of the door, the role of later scholars (muftis) was no less creative within the limits set to it by the nature of the sharia than that of their predecessors.59
In my opinion, the decision to close the gate of full ijtihad was not taken to stifle creativity, as the flexibility granted limited mujtahidun demonstrates, but was a practical necessity. By the time of the Abbasids, the Islamic state had undergone one of the most rapid geographical expansions of any empire in history. The Ummah, once predominantly, if not entirely Arab, had swollen to encompass Muslims of many diverse nations and cultures. If unregulated ijtihad had been allowed to continue there would have been, I believe, a real danger that separatist and heretical tendencies, each interpreting Islamic law in their own particular way could have become widespread. For the Ummah to remain unified and for the state to function effectively there had to be consensus on legal matters. . If a state is to be stable then it must have a stable legal system. Murad, in his defence of the four schools, describes the prospect of unlimited madhabs (law schools) as a brilliant scheme for the destruction of Islam60 and I agree.61
Conclusion
It is my conclusion, therefore, that the door of ijtihad never closed. As indicated by the title of this essay, it has continued both in theory and practice until the present day. What did close was the door of full ijtihad. This however was an implicit consensus rather than an overt one, taken for very practical and sensible reasons. There is no theoretical reason why a full mujtahid should not arise today and open a new school provided they are recognised as having the necessary qualifications. Likewise, there is nothing to prevent mujtahidun of the second rank from interacting directly with the sources of law to provide creative solutions to contemporary problems.
That said, it cannot be denied that there has been a crisis within the field of Islamic law for the last several centuries. The schools have passed through a long period of intellectual stagnation, a situation which has only reinforced the whole idea that the door of ijtihad has closed.62
It has been suggested that one reason that the schools have become moribund is that mujtahidun of high calibre no longer exist in the world.63 I find it impossible to believe this. One need only look at the strong Shia tradition of independent mujtahidun, those such as Sistani and Fadlallah today. Is it conceivable that the much larger Sunni community cannot produce jurists of equal measure? I think not.
The false belief in the closure of the door needs to be contested vigorously. As Menski has pointed out64, it has served the purposes of many groups to portray Islamic law as incapable of change from within. Traditional Islam needs to rediscover and reclaim its full potential and thereby reclaim the respect and relevance to practical rather than theoretical jurisprudence which it has lost. This must be accompanied by education reform which stresses creative skills in addition to memorisation65, in order to prepare jurists for the rigours of ijtihad. I strongly believe that, if the leading scholars have the will to act decisively in the manner I have indicated, Islamic jurisprudence can return once again to the intellectual heights of its early centuries.
End - Notes
2 J. Schacht, D.B MacDonald. "Idjtihd." in P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. eds.Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.CD-ROM Edition (Leiden:Brill, 2004)
3 Ibid
4 Ibid
5 Wael.B. Hallaq, Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed? (New York: International Journal of Middle East Studies, 16, 1984) reprinted in Wael.B.Hallaq, Law and Legal Reasoning in Classical and Medieval Islam. (Aldershot:Ashgate, 1994)V:3
6 Abdullah Saeed, Islamic Thought: An Introduction. (Abingdon:Routledge, 2006)52
7 Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Principles of Isamic Jurisprudence. (Cambridge:Islamic Texts Society, 2003) 490
8 Ibid
9 Ibid, 489
10 One of the four Sunni law schools: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafii. I shall henceforth refer to them only as the four schools.
11 Knut.S.Vikor, Between God and the Sultan: A History of Islamic Law. (London:Hurst, 2005) 154
12 Ibid
13 Ibid
14 Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, eds. trans. Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature. (Abingdon:Routledge, 2003) 192
15 Ibid, 192-193
16 Nicholas.P.Aghnides, Mohammedan Theories of Finance:With an Introduction to Mohammedan Law and a Bibliography. (London:Longmans, Green & Co., 1916) 121-123
17 Kamali, 2003, 490-493
18 Joseph Schacht, An Introduction to Islamic Law. (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1982) 69
19 Ibid, 69-70
20 Ibid, 70
21 Ibid, 70
22 Ibid, 71
23 Ibid, 71
24 Ibid, 69
25 N.J.Coulson, A History of Islamic Law. (Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, 1964) 80
26 Ibid, 81
27 Saeed, 2006, 53
28 Ibid
29 Shaykh Taha Jabir Al-Alwani, Issues in Contemporary Islamic Thought. (Richmond:The International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2005) 109
30 Ibid
31 Aghnides, 1916, 123
32 Thomas Patrick Hughes, Dictionary of Islam. (New Delhi, Cosmo Publications, 2004) 207
33 Aghnides, 1916, 124
34 Ibid, 125
35 Hallaq, 1984, V:6
36 Ibid, V:7
37 Ibid, V:9-10
38 Ibid, V:10
39 Ibid, V:9
40 Ibid, V:11
41 Ibid, V:11
42 Ibid, V:15-18
43 Ibid, V:17
44 Ibid, V:17
45 Ibid, V:19-20
46 Ibid, V:20
47 Ibid, V:20
48 Ibid, V:21
49 Ibid, V:33
50 Ibid, V:33
51 Ibid, V:33
52 Ibid, V:11
53 Ibid, V:17
54 Aghnides, 1916, 122
55 mujtahids on particular questions Ibid, 122
56 Ibid, 122
57 Hallaq, 1984, V:11, V:15-18
58 Kamali, 2003, 493-494
59 Schacht, 1982, 73
60 Abdal Hakim Murad, Understanding the Four Madhabs. (Cambridge:Muslim Academic Trust, 1999) 15
61 Many other reasons for this decision can, of course, be posited. Multiple schools of law would have led to severe problems in regulating trade and economic relations both within the state and with external trading partners. There would also have been the potential danger of social breakdown with different views on authority and crime and punishment emerging. Ultimately, the risk would have been of a de-evolution from a transnational state to a series of city/town/village states. At a more academic level, it makes perfect sense to limit the number of methodologies which can be employed to solve problems in a particular area of the academic sciences. Having fixed standards for investigation and research not only makes it easier to weigh up the merits of the conclusions of that research against other similar findings but also ensures that the intellectual activity is regulated and focused not simply wild speculation. In their way, the four schools were the precursors of the global academic standards used in universities today.
62 Werner Menski, Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. 2nd Edn. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) 342-343
63 Menski, 2006, 342
64 Ibid, 343-343
65 The World Bank. Mena Development Report: The Road Not Travelled: Education Reform in the Middle East and North Africa. 182-184
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/EDU_Flagship_Full_ENG.pdf (accessed April 22, 2009)
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